The Mixed System:
How did primaries change
the presidential
nomination process?
Methods of Nominating
Presidential Candidates
“King Caucus”: 1800-1828
Convention System: 1832-1912
The Convention System





National party nominating convention
selects presidential candidate
Strong parties
Patronage
High participation
Parties try to control presidents
Three changes at the turn
th
of the 20 century

Civil Service
Rise In Civil Service
Employment
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1816 1831 1851 1871 1891 1911 1931 1951 1971 1991
Percentage of employees under merit
Number of federal employees
under merit system, 1816-1921
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
1816 1821 1831 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921
Number of employees
Number of civil servants
Three changes at the turn
th
of the 20 century

Civil Service

Communications technology
Changes in technology

Railroads (1850s +)

Daily newspapers (1880s +)

Radio and TV (1930s +)
Number of daily and
weekly newspapers
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1790 1810 1830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990
Number of daily newspapers
Number of weeklies
Number of Households with
radio and TV (in millions)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1910
1920
1930
1940
Households with radio
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
Households with TV
Three changes at the turn
th
of the 20 century

Civil Service

Communications technology

Primary elections
Number of States Holding
Primary Elections
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1912
1920
1928
Democrats
1936
1944
1952
1960
Republicans
1968
First Three Methods of
Nominating Presidential
Candidates
“King Caucus”: 1800-1828
Convention System: 1832-1912
Mixed System: 1912-1968
Mixed System


Real decision about nomination made
at national convention
Candidates can choose to run in
primaries
Percent of Party
Convention Delegates
Chosen by Primaries
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1912
1920
1928
Democrats
1936
1944
1952
1960
Republicans
1968
Number of Convention
Ballots to Select
Presidential Nominee
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1832
1840
1848
1856
Republican
1864
1872
1880
1888
Democratic
1896
Number of Convention
Ballots to Select the
Presidential Nominee
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1912
1920
1928
Democrats
1936
1944
1952
1960
Republicans
1968
1952 Democratic Convention:
Delegates pledged by primaries

Sen. Estes Kefauver (TN): 257.5
delegates
Gov. Adlai Stevenson (IL): 41.5
delegates
Uncommitted: 611.5 delegates

Others:


– Sen. Richard Russell (GA): 161.5 delegates
– Averell Harriman: 112.5 delegates
– Sen. Bob Kerr (OK): 45.5 delegates
Review the three systems we’ve
discussed.
Which do you think is most
democratic?
Which has the best chance of
producing good presidents?
1968 Democratic
Convention
The Primary System
Presidential
Party Nomination Systems
“King Caucus”: 1800-1828
Convention System: 1832-1912
Mixed System: 1912-1968
Primary System: 1972-???
McGovern Fraser Commission:
Changes to Democratic Party Rules






Anti-discrimination provisions
Explicit party rules and open party meetings
Bans the UNIT RULE
– Unit rule: the practice of apportioning delegates
in a winner-take-all fashion
Encourages broad and open participation in
delegate selection process
Mandates that minorities’ opinions be fairly
weighted in delegate selection process
Bans the automatic delegate-status of party officials
and elected officeholders
Number of states holding
primary elections
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1912 1920 1928 1936 1944 1952 1960 1968 1976 1984 1992 2000
Democrats
Republicans
Percent of Party
Convention Delegates
Chosen by Primaries
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1912 1920 1928 1936 1944 1952 1960 1968 1976 1984 1992 2000
Democrats
Republicans
Some delegates still
chosen by other means

Caucus:
– A Meeting where any affiliated voter can
come and express their opinions

State convention:
– Local party groups select delegates to
state party convention. State convention
delegates select delegates to national
nominating convention.
Consequences of Party
Reform


Increase in number of primaries
Increase in importance of media
– (And hence the importance of early
primaries!)
Consequences of Party
Reform



Increase in number of primaries
Increase in importance of media
Increase in importance of early
primaries (and momentum and
expectations!)
A representative
beginning?
From the 2000 Census
Population
% White
Median
income
% Farm
employmt
Iowa
New
Hampshire
National
average
2,929,324
(30th)
1,235,786
(41st)
281,421,906
93.9%
96%
75.1%
$39,469
$49,467
$41,994
4.4%
.9%
1.9%
Consequences of Party
Reform




Increase in number of primaries
Increase in importance of media
Increase in importance of early
primaries (and momentum and
expectations!)
Decreases importance of national
party conventions
Consequences of Party
Reform






Increase in number of primaries
Increase in importance of media
Increase in importance of early
primaries
Decreases importance of national
party conventions
Decreases importance of state party
leaders
Party activists give way to candidate
activists
Changes After 1968

McGovern-Fraser reforms

FECA
Federal Election
Campaign Act

Creates a voluntary subsidy for
candidates who enter primary elections
– All funds candidates raise in amounts of $250
or less (if they raise $5000 in 20 different
states) are matched by the federal
government on Jan 1 of election year

Bans large donations by individuals
– Individuals can only give $2000 to a primary
candidate
Consequences of Party
Reform & FECA






Increase in number of primaries
Increase in importance of media
Increase in importance of early primaries
Decreases importance of national party
conventions
Decreases importance of state party leaders
Harder to raise money (takes longer to raise
big money in small contributions!)
A Couple of Problems?

Ideological primary voters?

Candidates mobilize factions?