1. MOST
ORGANISMS ARE
ACTIVE
IN A LIMITED
TEMPERATURE
RANGE
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical
composition & use a simple model to describe their specificity on
substrates.
METABOLISM & ENZYMES
METABOLISM
 all the chemical reactions that take place in
the body.
Proteins, carbohydrates and lipids are vital for life  metabolic
reactions focus on making these molecules during the
construction of cells and tissues, or breaking them down and
using them as a source of energy.
There are 2 types of metabolic reactions:
1. ANABOLIC REACTIONS
 SYNTHESIS [building up] reactions
 e.g. [a] amino-acids to polypeptides to proteins
[b] glucose + glucose + glucose etc to make
starch
2. CATABOLIC REACTIONS
 DECOMPOSITION [breaking down] reactions
 e.g. [a] unused proteins to amino-acids [waste]
[b] starch to maltose to glucose
Building up / Breaking down
Energy NEEDED
to form new bonds
ANABOLIC REACTION
CATABOLIC REACTION
Energy RELEASED
when bonds broken
Metabolic Pathways
Teacher Only
***Cancel audio / too much detail at this stage***
View  enzymes catalysing substrate leading to the next reaction in a metabolic activity
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rHDp4wJ1U0w&feature=related
Commonly, a number of enzymes are used in a sequence to
convert a substrate into one or more products. The chain of
reactions is called a METABOLIC PATHWAY.
Example:
All chemical
reactions that
occur within an
organism require
substances called
ENZYMES.
ENZYMES
Role of enzymes in metabolism
 organic catalysts  speed up rate of metabolic
reactions
 without enzymes metabolism would be too slow to
support life  they work by reducing the amount of
energy needed to activate a reaction [ACTIVATION
ENERGY]
 are needed in only small amounts & remain unchanged
at the end of the reaction
 work best under certain conditions [e.g. temperature,
pH]  called the OPTIMUM CONDITION
 may need co-enzymes to help function
Teacher only
View  ‘How Enzymes Work’ & Multiple Choice Q
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_enzymes_work.html
ACTIVATION ENERGY
Teacher only
View  Activation energy explanation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uR4Eysyk5N0
Chemical composition of enzymes
 made up of proteins  one or more polypeptide chains
[long chains of amino acids joined together with
peptide bonds]
 the polypeptide chain is folded into a 3-D globular
shape
 part of the enzyme is called an ACTIVE site  attaches
to the substrate
 usually soluble in water and salt solutions therefore
located in cell cytoplasm
Specificity of substrates
 highly specific  one enzyme catalyses one type of
reaction BECAUSE the shape of the active site matches
the shape of the substrate
Substrate – enzyme
complex
Substrate + enzyme
product + enzyme
Read only
& /OR
Record 1 -2 points
The starch (polysaccharide) will be broken down into simple
monosaccharide sugars by the enzyme amylase such as glucose &
fructose.
These simple molecules [the glucose] can then be easily absorbed into the
bloodstream.
Read only
&/OR
Record 1 -2 points
Proteins are also known as polypeptides.
They are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear
chain and folded into a globular form.
The amino acids in a polymer chain are joined together by the peptide
bonds.
Protease ‘digests’ protein into amino acids.
Read only
&/OR
Record 1 -2 points
Lipids are effectively hydrocarbon chains held together by ester bonds
["oxygen joints"]
Lipase is the enzyme that breaks down lipids into
fatty acids and glycerol.
NAMING ENZYMES
 many end in the suffix “ase” which indicates what
they break down
Copy and complete the table
ENZYME
SUBSTRATE
PRODUCT
sucrose
glucose & fructose
lactose
glucose & galactose
Lipase
hydrogen peroxide water & oxygen
maltose
Protease
Rennin
[e.g. pepsin]
protein
glucose & glucose
TWO ENZYME MODELS
LOCK AND KEY MODEL
 theory
 suggests that the substrate fits exactly into the active
site of the enzyme  like a key fitting into a lock
 assumes enzyme has a rigid and unchanging shape
INDUCED FIT MODEL
 more refined
 has a flexible active site  shape of enzyme
temporarily changes as the substrate approaches active
site so that it becomes an exact fit
Teacher only
View Induced fit
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V4OPO6JQLOE&feature=related
Questions
1. Identify the type of metabolic reaction taking place in the above
diagram. Explain your answer.
2. Compare the differences between the two enzyme theories.
COENZYMES
Teacher only
View Inhibition pathways
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PILzvT3spCQ&feature=related
ENZYME ACTIVITY
Identify the effect of increased temperature, change in pH and
change in substrate concentrations on the activity of enzymes
 Enzymes work best under certain conditions of temperature,
pH and substrate concentration.
Examples:
1. PEPSIN – a digestive enzyme in the stomach will only work at
a pH 1 – 2 [very acidic]
2. Optimal temperatures for 2 different organisms
Questions
1. State the optimal temperatures for
[a] humans
[b] thermophiles
2. Using the graph as your source, define a thermophile.
LIMITING FACTORS
 any factor affecting enzyme activity
 examples
 temperature
 pH
 substrate concentration
enzyme concentration
TEMPERATURE
 optimum temperature of humans is 37°C
 enzyme activity increases as temperature increases up to
the optimum temperature
 enzyme and substrate molecules are moving faster [more
kinetic energy] and therefore more collisions between
enzyme and substrate occur
 at high temperatures, the shape of the enzyme changes
causing a decrease in activity  can return to its original
shape upon normal temperature returning
 at very high temperatures the enzyme is DENATURED 
the chemical bonds holding the protein molecule
together and the 3D shape is PERMANENTLY changed.
The enzyme is destroyed and can no longer
accommodate the substrate.
Teacher only  bonds break causing loss of secondary & tertiary structures
Question
1. Describe the trend of this graph. Be sure to outline all the dips, rises
and plateaus. Give as much information as you can.
pH
 enzymes work best at an optimum pH  usually within a
narrow range
 extremes of acidity / alkalinity affect the bonds holding the
3D globular shape of the enzyme  denaturing the enzyme



Teacher only  pH disrupts ionic bonds meaning active site shape changes
Question
1. Describe the trend of this graph. Be sure to outline all the dips, rises
and plateaus. Give as much information as you can.
Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance
 hydrogen ions makes a substance acidic  pH stands for the
‘power of hydrogen’
 pH is a measure of the acidity or the alkalinity of a substance
pH scale is 1-14
 pH 1-6  acidic
 pH 7  neutral [water]
 pH 8-14  alkali
Substrate concentration
 An increase in substrate concentration will increase the
reaction until all enzyme active sites are occupied. At this
point the reaction will continue but cannot go any faster.
 The rate / speed of reaction is limited by the amount of
enzyme.
Teacher only  bonds break causing loss of secondary & tertiary structures
Questions
1. Describe the trend of this graph. Be sure to outline all the dips,
rises and plateaus. Give as much information as you can.
Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or
resources and perform a first hand investigation to test
the effect of:
 Temperature
 pH
 substrate concentration  handout
Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain
a relatively stable internal environment
WHAT IS HOMEOSTASIS?
 Homeostasis = ‘same state’  it is the process by which an
organism maintains a CONSTANT internal environment.
Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment
is important for optimal metabolic efficiency
 The maintenance of a constant internal environment is
important for optimal metabolic efficiency.
 The conditions necessary for HOMEOSTASIS include:
1. Correct concentration of ions, gases, nutrients etc in
extracellular fluid [ECF]
2. ECF  must have a temp of 37C
3. ECF  must have optimum pressure
 Animals have 2 main control systems:
[a] Endocrine [hormone] system
[b] Nervous system
OPTIMAL METABOLIC EFFICIENCY
 Enzymes are essential for proper metabolic function in an
organism.
 Enzymes work best within a limited range of environmental
conditions
 However, enzyme efficiency is affected by certain factors e.g.
pH, temperature, and substrate concentration
 Therefore, a constant and stable internal environment is
needed so that enzymes will always be working at an
OPTIMUM, and thus metabolism will be at optimum
efficiency
Copy and complete the table
FUNCTIONS OF HOMEOSTASIS
HOMESTATIC
MECHANISM
VARIABLE
ORGANS
INVOLVED
Osmoregulation
Water & mineral ions
Kidneys
E____________
Urea & CO2
Kidneys & lungs
Body temperature
H________
Skin
Blood glucose
G____________
Liver & pancreas
Respiratory gases CO2 & O2 concentration
L________
Explain that homeostasis consists of 2 stages
FEEDBACK MEACHANISMS
 have evolved in living things as a mechanism by which they maintain
homeostasis
 Consists of 2 stages:
1. DETECTING changes from the stable state
2. COUNTERACTING changes from the stable state
If a level is too
high it is quickly
lowered
NORMAL
LEVEL
If a level is too
low it is quickly
raised
 Feedback is SELF REGULATING
 Circular situation where information about something is
continually fed back to a control centre
Example 1
Teacher only
View thermoregulation  students to read and complete
http://www3.fhs.usyd.edu.au/bio/homeostasis/Control_Systems.htm
Read only
Do not copy
Teacher only
View  read about homeostasis & then complete quiz [Q1 & 2 ONLY if not done the reading]
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp41/41020.html
Hypothalamus  regulates body temperature
Read only
Do not copy
Hypothalamus
 is roughly the size of an almond [in humans]
 links the NERVOUS & ENDOCRINE systems via the PITUITARY
GLAND  an important function
 makes & releases brain hormones which in turn STIMULATE or
INHIBIT the release of PITUITARY HORMONES.
 controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and
circadian cycles
Example 2
Read only
Do not copy
Osmoregulation is the regulation of water concentrations in the
bloodstream, effectively CONTROLLING THE AMOUNT OF
WATER available for cells to absorb.
The homeostatic control of water is as follows
 A change in water concentration leads to active via
negative feedback control
 Osmoreceptors that are capable of detecting water concentration are
situated on the hypothalamus next to the circulatory system
 The hypothalamus sends chemical messages to the pituitary gland next to it.
 The pituitary gland secretes anti-diuretic hormone [ADH], which targets the
kidney responsible for maintaining water levels
 When the hormone reaches its target tissue, it alters the tubules of the
kidney to become more / less permeable to water
 If more water is required in the blood stream, high concentrations of ADH
make the tubules more permeable.
 If less water is required in the blood stream, low concentrations of ADH
make the tubules less permeable.
...flowchart form
Example 3
Teacher only
Read only
Do not copy
View  insulin / negative feedback
http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/endocrine/adam-200092.htm
Example 4 positive feedback – amplifies the stimulus-response pathway
Gather process and analyse information from secondary
sources and use available evidence to develop a model of a
feedback mechanism
Complete the COUNTERACTING CHANGE activity by cutting and pasting the
information into a STIMULUS-RESPONSE PATHWAY  worksheet
Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and
responding to environmental changes
NERVOUS SYSTEMS
 The nervous system is made up of the:
CNS
Central
Nervous
System
PNS
Peripheral
Nervous
System
 BRAIN & SPINAL CORD
 a CONTROL CENTRE
 coordinates all the organisms response
 receives & interprets information, then
initiates a response
 system of BRANCHING NERVES throughout
the body connecting receptors & effectors
 communication channel
 passes messages rapidly to CNS and back
 Nervous system works closely with the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Hormones are:
 made in special GLANDS in response to certain STIMULI
 Transported in BLOOD
 Take LONGER to reach target organ
 Longer LASTING effect
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING:
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Identify the broad range over which life is found compared with
the narrow limits for individual species
 Ambient temperature is the temperature of the environment
 The range of temperatures over which life is found is
BROARD compared to the narrow limits for individual species
 Organisms on Earth live in environments with ambient
temperatures ranging from
<0°C
Arctic animals
–
>100°C
Extreme thermophile
bacteria [deep sea vents]
 Since you are a warm-blooded animal, your body attempts to
keep its internal temperature constant. Human life is only
compatible with a narrow range of temperatures:
TEMPERATURE [°C]
SYMPTOMS
28
muscle failure
30
33
loss of body temp.
control
loss of
consciousness
37
Normal
42
CNS breakdown
44
death*
[* by irreversible protein "denaturation", or unfolding; once their shape changes, they cease to function properly]
HSC QUESTIONS
1. The ranges of body temperatures of two desert animal species are
illustrated.
Species I
Species II
10
20
30
40
Body temperature [°C]
What is the best description to account for the range of body temperatures in
Species I and Species II?
[A]
[B]
[C]
[D]
Species I is ectothermic; Species II is ectothermic.
Species I is ectothermic; Species II is endothermic.
Species I is endothermic; Species II is ectothermic.
Species I is endothermic; Species II is endothermic
Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and
endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient temperature
and explain how these responses assist in temperature regulation
Endotherm
 organisms whose metabolism generates heat to maintain an
internal
temperature independent of the ambient temperature
 Birds and mammals
Ectotherm
Body temperature
 limited ability to control body temperature / rise & fall with
ambient temperature changes
 Plants, invertebrates, fish, reptiles amphibians
Ambient temperature
v’s
body temperature
Endotherm
Ectotherm
Ambient temperature
Because of fluctuating temperatures animals must possess
ADAPTATIONS [
] that enable them to survive.
They can be:
 Structural
 Physiological
 Behavioural
 physical features e.g. shape of animals
body
 biochemical reactions e.g. production
of venom in snakes
 e.g. migration
Analyse information from secondary sources to describe
adaptations and responses that have occurred in Australian
organisms to assist temperature regulation
Using the text book / worksheets / internet, CONSTRUCT a table
describing the ADAPTATIONS & RESPONSES of 2 Australian:
 animals
 plants
Activity Classify the following adaptations as either
STRUCTURAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL or BEHAVIOURAL.
Migration
Increasing metabolic rate
Decreasing metabolic rate
Torpor [Mountain Pygmy possum  brief hibernation-like
state]
Hibernation
Production of ‘antifreeze’ [glycoprotein] to stop ice crystals
from forming [Atlantic salmon]
Small limbs [reduce SA]
Blubber
Counter-current circulatory system  heat / gas exchange
Aestivate [hibernation type state / occurs in summer] 
Bogong moths
Nocturnal
Nests in burrows [bilby]
Shivering
S P B
S P B
Colouring
Basking in sun
Die back
Vernalisation [exposure to cold before flowers form]
Arrangement of leaves on a Eucalyptus tree
Dormant seeds
Vertical leaves
Reduced number of stomates
Altering growth rate  some eucalypts geo more in spring
that in winter
Plant seeds only open their seed coats when they are exposed
to fire  Banksia ericifolia
Identify some responses of plants to temperature change
 Plants can be damaged at temperature extremes:
 enzyme structures are denatured
 membranes change their properties
 important enzymes involved in photosynthesis and respiration are
embedded in plant membranes, extremes of temperature can be a
major problem.
 In cold conditions, extracellular ice formation causes dehydration.
Some plants can tolerate freezing temperatures as low as - 50oC by:
 altering their solute concentrations
 through the prevention of intracellular freezing
 In hot desert conditions, plants have to develop a compromise
between access to gases for photosynthesis and respiration versus
loss of water via transpiration and
cooling via evaporation.
Frost affected
leaves
2. PLANTS &
ANIMALS
TRANSPORT DISSOLVED
NUTRIENTS &
GASES IN A FLUID
MEDIUM
Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in
mammalian blood:
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Water
n
Salts
Nitrogenous waste
Lipids
..
Products of digestions
n
BLOOD


Main function is to act as a TRANSPORT system.
It is made up of:
Carry blood cells &
dissolved substances
Plasma (55%)
Platelets (< 0.01%)
White blood cells (0.1%)
Red blood cells (45%)
Transport O2 & CO2
Fight infection
Clotting agents
Clotting agents
Teacher only
RBC, WBC & platelet  relative sizes
Perform a first hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to
gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled
diagrams.
EXAMINING BLOOD CELLS
INTRODUCTION
There are many different types of cells in the blood. These include
ERYTHROCYTES [RBC] and several types of LEUCOCYTES [WBC]. The
different types of WBC can be distinguished from one another by
their different shaped nuclei, the colour of the cytoplasm inside the
cells and whether or not the cytoplasm contains granules. Most WBC
are much BIGGER than RBC.
AIMS
 To observe prepared slides of human blood and describe the
visible cells.
 To estimate the size of RBC & WBC
 To draws scaled diagrams of RBC & WBC
HYPOTHESIS
Upon viewing the blood specimen there should be differences in the
SIZE & SHAPE of cells, indicating blood is made up of a number of
different components.
MATERIALS
Prepared slides of human blood
Light microscope
Graph paper [mm]
METHOD
PART A  MAKING OBSERVATIONS
1. Examine the blood smears provided and use the labelled diagrams provided to identify at least 3
different types of blood cells.
2. Record your observation of a RBC and as many different WBC.
PART B  ESTIMATING SIZE
1. Place graph paper under low power [X10] and calculate the diameter of your
field of view in mm.
2. Multiply by 1000 to convert into micrometres [µm].
3. Now, calculate the field of view under high power [
of low power].
4. View the slide under low, then high power. Move the slide around to view cells.
5. For each cell type:  Estimate the number of cells that could fit across the FOV
 Estimate the size of each cell type.
Low power
Field of view =
µm
High power
Field of view =
µm
PART C  DRAWING SCALE DIAGRAMS
1. Choose one RBC & WBC. Draw them next to each other so the sizes can be compared.
2. Use the measurements calculated in Part B to work out the scale. Use a ruler for measurements.
3. Label the cell, including magnification & scale.
RESULTS
PART A  MAKING OBSERVATIONS
TYPE OF BLOOD CELL
SHAPE
FEATURES
PART B  ESTIMATING SIZE
TYPE OF BLOOD
CELL
DIAMETER OF FIELD OF VIEW
IN HIGH POWER [µm]
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF CELLS
THAT FIT ACROSS DIAMETER
PART C  DRAWING SCALE DIAGRAMS
WBC
RBC
Discussion questions
1. Identify the most common type of cell you observed in the blood
preparation.
2. Outline why this cell is the most common.
3. Explain why there is more than one type WBC in blood.
4. Using your diagram as a guide, identify the size of a RBC relative to a WBC.
ESTIMATED SIZE OF 1
CELL [µm]
MICROSCOPE CALCULATIONS
Using the following website WORK through Lesson 2, 4 & 5]in order to gain
skills in:
 CALCULATING FIELD OF VIEW,
 ESTMATING SIZE OF AN OBJECT &
 PRODUCING A SCALE DIAGRAM OF AN OBJECT.
http://www.saskschools.ca/curr_content/biology20/unit1/unit1_mod2.htm
Once you have completed reading through the examples click on the
link [at the end of each lesson] to complete the QUESTIONS &
PRINT off any work to add to your study notes.
Lesson 2 
Calculations Related to the Microscope
The purpose of this lesson is to learn to calculate the
actual size of images seen through a microscope.
Lesson 4 Estimating the Size of an Object (Calculations Related to the Microscope - Part 2)
The purpose of this lesson is to practice estimating the size of a microscope image and to learn
to produce a biological drawing.
Lesson 5 
Calculating the Size of a Cell and Preparing Biological Drawings
This lab requires students to use a microscope to view and prepare slides, to estimate the size
of the cells they view, and to prepare correct biological drawings of those cells.
HANDOUT
CO2 & 02 TRANSPORT IN BLOOD
Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood: Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Water
Salts
Nitrogenous waste
Oxygen Transport
Oxygen Transport
Carbon dioxide Transport
Carbon dioxide Transport
Lipids
Digestion products
Complete the following. Answer only.
Construct a table that summarises:
 The organ FROM which the substance travels
 The organ TO which the substance travels
 The FORM of each substance how each substance as it travels around
the body
 Which part of the blood the substance is CARRIED BY
TYPICAL ANSWER
Substance
From
To
Form
Cells
Lungs
HCO3- ions
RBC
Plasma
Lungs
Cells
Oxyhaemoglobin
RBC
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen
Water
Salts
Lipids
Nitrogenous
Waste
Products of
digestion
Carried by
Move this curtain .... DOWN
Digestive
system
Body cells
Digestive
system
Body cells
Digestive
system
Body cells Water moceules
plasma
Body cells Ions in plasma
Plasma
Body cells Chlyomicrons
Plasma
Liver
Body cells
Kidneys
Plasma
Digestive
system
Liver
Body cells Separate
Plasma
molecules e.g. aa,
glucose etc
Mostly urea
Using this information and any other secondary source, construct a table summarising
‘…. the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:
Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin
Why?
 Oxygen is not very soluble in water therefore cannot be
carried in blood plasma
 As humans are large and active a ready supply of oxygen
is needed for cellular respiration
ADVANTAGES OF HAEMOGLOBIN
1. RBC contain a compound called HAEMAGLOBIN 
increases oxygen carrying capacity of blood [x100]
2. Structure of haemoglobin is that oxygen joins loosely to
it [at the respiratory surface]; and then releases the
oxygen easily [in capillaries to organs]  increases the
rate and efficiency of oxygen intake
3. Presence of haemoglobin in blood cell does not upset
the osmotic balance of blood
4. RBC have no nucleus  more room for more
haemoglobin in each cell
5. Structure of haemoglobin can carry 4 oxygen molecules
 increases the rate and efficiency of oxygen intake
ARTERIES, CAPPILARIES & VEINS
Teacher Only
View  blood passage through the blood vessels
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PgI80Ue-AMo&feature=related
Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation
to their function.
How blood vessels are connected to each other
other
Activity  HANDOUT
Construct a table for the vessels above that relates
STRUCTURE to FUNCTION.
The structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins
Using the website listed complete the table below for
your study notes. Be sure to print out PAGE 2 upon
completion and list and any additional websites in a bibliography.
http://www.worldofteaching.com/powerpoints/
Task
Draw and complete a table to compare structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries.
Compare the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries.
Structure
Artery
Vein
Capillary
Function
TYPICAL ANSWER
Review of VESSELS activity...
ARTERIES
 carry blood AWAY from the heart
 all carry oxygenated blood [except the pulmonary artery]
 elastic fibres [muscle tissue] in the artery allow it to contract and
relax when blood is pumped through it  maintains pressure in the
blood
 thick, muscular& elastic walls to withstand high pressure
 contraction of arteries also helps maintain blood pressure
 muscle fibres also maintain the rate of blood flow
 deep under skin
VEINS
 carry blood TO the heart
 carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart [except the pulmonary
arteries]
 thin walls [blood pressure is low]
 larger lumen [passageway / opening]
 have VALVES to prevent backflow [as no muscle fibres in walls]
 panels of muscles around larger veins [limbs]  contraction of
muscles provides pressure to drive blood along
 closer to surface
CAPILLARIES
 carry blood away from the heart
 Extension of the inner layers of arteries and veins
 Narrow [1 RBC cell thick]
 Connect veins and arteries
 Surround all tissue cells  large SA for exchange of materials
between body and blood cells
ARTERIES
Contrast x-ray showing aorta & kidneys
VEINS
ARTERIES, VEINS & CAPILLARIES
DISEASES
Question
1. Identify A and B. Justify your answer.
Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the
blood as it moves around the body and identify tissues in which
these changes occur.
HEART
 Muscular pump
 Has 4 chambers
 RIGHT / LEFT ATRIA
* atrium
 RIGHT / LEFT VENTRICLE
 Double circulatory system  blood passes through the heart
twice
 Atria receive blood from veins
 Ventricles contract & send blood around the body at high
pressure
 Heart has valves  tricuspid & bicuspid
Teacher Only
View  Heart information on YouTube
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H04d3rJCLCE&feature=related
Interactive  slide show - labelling
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP12504
Teacher Only
Interactive  slide show - sequencing
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/activities/circulatory.html
View  Real heart beating on YouTube [30s]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NYB-rJZQt4w&feature=related
TASKS
Part A  Flowchart
Using the image below / handout, construct a basic flowchart of the path
that blood would take around the heart.
Part B  Questions
1. State where the blood goes after it has left the right ventricle?
2. Outline the function of the left ventricle.
3. Explain why the aorta is such a thick and robust structure.
4. Identify the system that sends blood to the lungs.
5. Define the term deoxygenated.
PACEMAKER
 Sino-atrial node is where the ‘pacemaker’ cells are located. These cells
are responsible for the regular rhythm of your heart beat.
 This is an artificial pacemaker that regulates the heart beat in place of
a damaged or impaired SA node.
View  ‘A Big India’ [4 Corners]
****only if time****
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xsPic6PRCf4&feature=fvw
PULMONARY CIRCUIT
 aka LUNG circuit [heart  LUNGS  heart]
 blood returned from the BODY
 enters the RIGHT ATRIUM of the heart via the VENA CAVA [major
vein]  heart beats & right ventricle pumps the blood through the
pulmonary artery to lungs  blood enters left atrium via the
PULMONARY VEIN
 blood
 low in O2 glucose & other nutrients
high in CO2, urea, wastes
 Blood flow is faster
 Lower pressure
SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT
 aka BODY circuit [heart  BODY  heart]
 blood
 high in O2
 low in CO2, urea, wastes
 High pressure [because of left ventricle contracting]
 Body fluid is formed [fluid is forced out of blood due to the pressure]
 Left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to body via AORTA to body
 E.g.
 Liver
 Intestine
 kidneys
LIVER
After food is absorbed it is carried in the blood to the liver. The liver
controls the LEVEL of many circulating substances.
 Breakdown of unwanted amino-acids [proteins cannot be stored]
 changed into UREA and an acid in a process called
DEAMINATION
 Regulates blood glucose  excess glucose is changed to
GLYCOGEN or glycogen stores are changed to glucose
 Produces bile [breaks down lipids]
 Regulates blood cholesterol & some hormones
 Stores some lipids, vitamins & minerals
 Breaks down toxins e.g. alcohol
 Breaks down RBC
Normal liver
diseased liver
cirrhosis of
the liver
caused by
Hepatitis B





Scar tissue
bleeding into abdomen as blood is under high pressure in vein because of scarring
fat deposits around the eyes & jaundice as bile production is impaired
poor vitamin absorption  arthritis / fatigue / weak
billirubin [breakdown of the haem group in RBC] is excreted in bile [if bile production is impaired the
billirubin accumulates giving a person a yellow appearance
Location of liver
INTESTINES
 LEVELS Of nutrients increase in digestion
 Glucose, amino acids, ion, lipids & other substances from food enter
the blood. The increase is through the small intestines reabsorption of
food
Machete wound / recovery uneventful
KIDNEY
 Salt and water levels are regulated
 All urea is removed
 Toxins are excreted into the urine
Read the following.
Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why the
removal of carbon dioxide is essential
OXYGEN & CARBON DIOXIDE
 All living cells need oxygen for respiration
 As a result of respiration CO2 is produced
 When CO2 dissolves in water it makes CARBONIC ACID
 This means that if a lot of CO2 is produced the body cells and
the blood and lymph will become acidic
 As studied before, enzymes can only function within a
specific pH range
 So an increase in carbon dioxide will result in lowering of pH
which will effect the overall metabolism of the body
Perform a first hand investigation to demonstrate the effect
of dissolved CO2 on the pH of water
Teacher Only
View ppp effect of CO2 on the pH
HANDOUT  Complete the following
Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from
cells is essential

Cells require oxygen in the process of respiration [__________________________________]

Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energy [ATP]

Carbon dioxide is a waste product and must be removed to maintain the normal pH balance of
the blood. By removing excess carbon dioxide, it prevents a build up of _________________,
which causes the _____________________ of the pH, and therefore increasing breathing rate
and depth. Carbonic acid forms when carbon dioxide dissolves in _______________ and as the
blood is approximately 70% water it must be removed to maintain ______________________ .
At normal levels, [after excess removal of carbon dioxide] the carbon dioxide [bicarbonate ion
(HCO3-)] equilibrium is an important mechanism for buffering the blood to maintain a constant
pH.
Performa a first hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon
dioxide on the pH pf water
9.3.1 DONATED BLOOD – WHAT’S THE USE?
To complete this task:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Save this document in your own directory.
Close the Read-only.
Complete the task - don’t forget to include a Bibliography.
Print this activity out and include in your notes.
Students
2d
analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from
donated blood and discuss the uses of these products
AIM
To investigate the products derived from donated blood and their uses.
METHOD
1. Conduct some research to find which products are extracted from donated blood and what these
products are used for. A good starting point would be to go to the Red Cross website at
www.arcbs.redcross.org.au.
2. Complete a table like the one below to summarise the information you find.
3. Answer the discussion questions at the end of this activity.
4. Write a short report of your investigation using the following discussion questions as guidelines.
Table 5.3.4
Products derived from blood and their uses
Product extracted
from blood
Use(s)
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Identify who is eligible to donate blood.
2. Outline the main steps involved in the process if blood donation.
3. Explain the need to separate whole blood into a number of different products.
4. Construct a pie chart that shows the main groups of patients for whom donated blood is used and
the proportion of blood used by each group.
9.3.2 MAKING ARTIFICIAL BLOOD
To complete this task:
1. Save this document in your own directory.
2. Close the Read-only.
3. Complete the task - Don’t forget to include a Bibliography.
4. Print out this activity and include in your notes.
Students
2e
analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production
of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is needed
AIM
To find out about the production of artificial blood and propose reasons why research into artificial
blood is needed.
METHOD
1. Working in pairs, find out what research is being carried out on artificial blood. A good starting
point would be to go to the website at www.sybd.com.
2. Write a multimedia presentation to present your findings to the class. Include the following details:
 Difficulties with the production of artificial blood
 Reasons why this research is needed
 The main similarities and differences between artificial blood and real blood
 Potential uses for artificial blood
 Benefits of using artificial blood
Artificial Blood
Dr Claude Bagnis, head of
the molecular haematology
lab at the French Blood
Institution displays a tube
as he collects gene transfer
vectors in his laboratory in
Marseille
in
2009.
Dr
Bagnis and his team have
successfully
genetically
modified human red blood
cells which could lead the
way to creating samples of
rare blood artificially.
(Source: Reuters)
HSC QUESTION
Some recent developments in blood banking Types of donation
 Plasma donation – during collection, plasma is separated by centrifugation and the other blood components are
returned to the donor
 Whole blood donation – after collection, whole blood is centrifuged to separate blood components and the
components from different donors are pooled
Storage of blood components
 Some blood components can be frozen for storage
 Some blood components can be refrigerated for up to one month, but this requires additives:
 citrate is used as an anticoagulant
 glucose is used as a source of nutrients
 mannitol is used to maintain osmolarity and pH
Safety
 Ensuring that the donor does not get an infection during donation
 Ensuring that the donated blood is not contaminated by testing it for antibodies to microbes or for the
presence of viral DNA or RNA
 Ensuring that the number of white blood cells is depleted before the blood is given to patients who have a
weakened immune system

Bacterial contamination of platelets is still a problem because they cannot be easily separated by filtration
With reference to the information above, explain how an understanding of biological concepts
has led to the development of specific methods in blood banking and the implications for
society.
[8 marks]
9.3.3 MEASURING O2 & CO2 IN THE BLOOD
To complete this task:
1. Save this document in your own directory.
2. Close the Read-only.
3. Complete the task - Don’t forget to include
a Bibliography.
4. Print out activity and include in your notes.
Students
2c
analyse information from secondary sources to identify the current technologies that allow
measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in the blood and describe
and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used.
AIM
To identify current technologies that enable the measurement of gases in the
blood and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used.
METHOD
1. Refer to the listed websites as well as other available sources of information.
www.labtestonline.org/understaning/analytes/blood_gases/test.html
www.nda.ox.ac.uk/wfsa/html/u05/u05_003.htm
www.nim.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003855.htm
2. Copy and complete table 5.3.6 below to summarise information about 4 different blood technologies.
3. Answer the discussion questions at the end of this activity.
RESULTS
5.3.6 Technologies that measure gases in the blood
NAME OF
TECHNOLOGY
WHAT IT MEASURES
CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH
TECHNOLOGY IS USED
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Identify the main gases carried by the blood
Outline the main health problems caused by an imbalance in these gases.
Explain the circumstances under which blood gas analysis needs to be done.
Outline the types of technologies available to analyse the concentrations of gases in the blood.
Outline how each of these technologies works,
Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement
of materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue.
Teacher Only
View  Information about xylem & phloem. Includes diagrams & micrographs.
http://12knights.pbworks.com/w/page/25273922/926-Explain-how-water-is-carried
 Transport system in plants involves phloem and xylem. Xylem transports
water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves where its needed in
an upward stream only, from roots toward leaves. Phloem transports
organic materials, in particular sugars made in leaves by the process of
photosynthesis, up and down to where the material is needed or for
storage.
 The xylem is a complex tissue composed of 4 cell types. Most of the tissue
is composed of large vessels, which have thickened and strengthened
walls and conduct water. Xylem also contains hard fibre cells, which add
support to the tissue. When mature xylem is dead
 Phloem is also a complex tissue, which has supporting fibre cells and 2
special types of cells: sieve tube and companion cells. Phloem tissue is
alive when mature.
Movement of materials through plants in xylem
 Water enters through the root hairs by osmosis and has to travel across
the cortex of the root to the xylem.
 What helps water move up the xylem: (transpiration – cohesion – tension
mechanism.
- Transpiration stream – water is drawn up the xylem tubes to replace
the loss of water by evaporation
- Capillarity – movement of water through narrow tubes, water tends to
cling to the sides of the xylem, which stops it flowing backwards. This
is called Adhesion, which is a force of attraction between unlike
particles in this case between water particles and the sides of the
xylem (cellulose molecules) allowing water to cling.
- Cohesive forces – forces between like particles which causes the
attraction of water molecule so that the form a continuos stream of
molecules extending from the leaves down to the roots.
- Osmosis – movement of water from a region of high to low water
concentration helping the water to go up the xylem (root pressure).
Movement of materials through plants in phloem


The pressure-flow mechanism (translocation) is a model for phloem
transport now widely accepted.
The model has the following steps.
Step 1: Sugar is loaded into the phloem tube from the sugar source, e.g.
the leaf (active transport). The dissolved sugars move along a
concentration gradient from where the sugar molecules are in high
concentration (leaves) to where they are in a lower concentration (E.g.
roots). This is called ‘source’ to ‘sink’ flow
Step 2: Water enters by osmosis due to a high solute concentration in
the phloem tube. Water pressure is now raised at this end of the tube.
Creating a ‘pressure-flow’, which pushes the sugar through the phloem.
Step 3: At the sugar sink, where sugar is taken to be used or stored, it
leaves the phloem tube. Water follows the sugar, leaving by osmosis
and thus the water pressure in the tube drops. The building up of
pressure at the source end, and the reduction of pressure at the sink
end, causes water to flow from source to sink. As sugar is dissolved in
the water, it flows at the same rate as the water. Sieve tubes between
phloem cells allow the movement of the phloem sap to continue
relatively unimpeded. Sugars are actively transported from the phloem
to the cells where they are needed.
Choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation
to gather first hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections
of phloem and xylem tissue
Study the pictures below and perform the following experiment.
XYLEM
//12knights.pbworks.com/w/page/25273922/926-Explain-how-
section
SIEVE
PHLOEM
PLATES
PHLOEM
SIEVE PLATES
Cross section
PHLOEM
SIEVE PLATES
Longitudinal
section
WATER CONDUCTING TISSUE IN CELERY
AIM
To make a stained specimen of water conducting tissue on celelry.
To construct a longitudinal and transverse structure.
METHOD
1. Set up a microscope.
2. Take a 5 cm piece of celery and use a scalpel or one sided razor blade to cut
10 very thin cross sections from the top. Be careful! Cut away from the body!
3. Float the sections in water in a petrie dish until you can observe them under
the microscope.
4. Place a thin section on a slide together with a drop of Toluidine blue stain.
5. Cover the section with a cover slip and observe it under the microscope.
6. Draw the cells and label them using the micrographs [pictures ] as a resource
to assist you.
7. Blue stained cells have LIGNIN thickening in the cell walls. These cells act as stiffening rods
in the plant. The dark green cells are the Xylem water conduction cells.
8. Small cells between the Xylem and phloem are living cells which are dividing. These cells
are the Cambium cells which become differentiated into the Phloem and Xylem cells as
they mature.
RESULTS
COMPARISON BETWEEN PHLOEM & XYLEM
HSC QUESTIONS
1. Which alternative correctly identifies the tissues that transport carbohydrates in
both plants and animals?
2
PLANT
ANIMAL
[A]
Xylem
Lymph
[B]
Xylem
Blood
[C]
Phloem
Lymph
[D]
Phloem
Blood
3. PLANTS &
ANIMALS REGULATE
THE CONCETRATION OF
GASES, WATER
& WASTE PRODUCTS OF
METABOLISM IN CELLS &
IN INTERSTITIAL FLUID
Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be
maintained within a narrow range for optimal function.
OSMOREGULATION is a process of water balance in homeostasis
WATER CONTENT IN CELLS MUST BE ISOTONIC
 Intracellular fluid [inside cell] = interstitial fluid[outside cells]
Recall
HYPERTONIC
Higher concentration
of dissolved
substances than the
solution to which it is
compared.
ISOTONIC
Same concentration of
dissolved substances
than the solution to
which it is compared.
HYPORTONIC
Lower concentration
of dissolved
substances than the
solution to which it is
compared.
Teacher Only
View  Isotonic, hypertonic etc solutions and Multiple Choice Questions
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_osmosis_wor
ks.html
WATER CONTENT MUST BE KEPT WITHIN A NARROW RANGE BECAUSE
IT:
 Makes up about 70% - 90% of living things
 Is a transport medium
 Distributes many substances in & between cells
 Is a solvent for many ions
 Allows metabolic reactions to occur [can only occur in solution]
 Determines the concentration of substances in the blood
 Helps maintain body temperature
 Is a lubricant e.g. joints
 Keeps respiratory surfaces moist for efficient gas exchange
Teacher only
Reason 1 = osmosis  cell death [lysis] or dehydration
Reason 2 = affect cellular reactions as all occur within the solvent water
Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued
metabolic activity
 As a result of metabolism, many waste products are formed e.g. CO2
 If these were allowed to accumulate, they would slow down
metabolism and kill the cells e.g. excess CO2 increases pH, affecting
enzyme function
 This is why they need to quickly be removed, or converted into a less
toxic form.
 When proteins and amino acids are broken down [in a process called
deamination], a nitrogenous waste called ammonia, is produced
 Ammonia is highly toxic and must be removed or changed to a less
toxic form
 ORGANS OF EXCRETION = _______, ________, ________
Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of
fish and mammals:
 The primary role is osmoregulation  regulation of s_______ and
w_________ levels in the body
 Fish excrete nitrogenous wastes through their GILLS [not their kidneys]
urine contains mainly excess water and salts
 Mammals’ urine contains urea as well as water and salts
 The kidneys ensure that the concentration of blood and interstitial
fluid is constant
Teacher only
Reason 1 = osmosis  cell death [lysis] or dehydration
Reason 2 = affect cellular reactions as all occur within the solvent water
Perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a
mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model or visual
resource and identify the regions involved in the excretion of
waste products
Teacher only
View  display kidney dissection ppp
THE MAMMALIAN KIDNEY
Parts of the kidney
INSIDE THE KIDNEY
THE NEPHRON
 the functional unit of the kidney
r
Teacher only
 The Loop of Henle descends into the striated section
of the kidney medulla
 U-shaped loops help to retain solutes [ions and urea]
/ low water concentration in medulla therefore water
moves from loop into the more permeable collecting
ducts of the medulla  capillaries
 length of the Loop of Henle is proportionate to the
concentration of urine
 The nephrons are densely surrounded by capillaries
 this is to provide a large surface area for excretion
Teacher only
View  basic function of kidney
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TzwPmz5V6Xg&feat
ure=related
View  more detailed function of nephron [filtration,
reabsorption & secretion]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=glu0dzK4dbU
SEM  showing the
capillaries that make
up the glomerulus
and the cell
structures that make
up the Bowmans
Capsule.
SEM  showing the
capillaries that make
up the glomerulus
and the cell
structures that make
up the Bowmans
Capsule.
e role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
HANDOUT
THE MAMMALIAN KIDNEY
THE NEPHRON
Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals:
STRUCUTRE & FUNCTION
The basic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Each kidney has about 1 million nephrons, all
packed into an area of the kidney called the cortex. The nephron's primary function is to filter blood, but as you
can see from the diagram, this is not a simple process. The nephron has three major parts: the GLOMERULUS, the
BOWMAN'S CAPSULE, and the TUBULE [which is further divided into the proximal and distal tubule and the Loop of
Henle].
Blood enters the kidney from the renal artery and moves into the glomerulus, where filtration occurs. Filtration is
the process by which water and dissolved particles are pulled out of the blood. The resulting liquid, called FILTRATE
contains water and many of the toxic substances that might have accumulated in the blood [like ammonia]. The
glomerulus is enclosed by the Bowman's capsule, small molecules and water can pass through this area, but larger
molecules do not. The filtrate is then collected in the Bowman's capsule for transport through the nephron.
The nephron itself will restore vital nutrients and water back into the blood, while retaining the waste products the
body needs to eliminate. Two processes accomplish this task: TUBULAR REABSORPTION and TUBULAR
SECRETION. During tubular reabsorption, cells in the proximal tubule remove water and nutrients from the filtrate
and pass them back into the blood, wastes such as urea are retained in the tubule. During tubular secretion,
wastes that were not initially filtered out in the Bowman’s capsule are removed from the blood in the distal tubule.
Ammonia and many drugs are removed from the blood during tubular secretion.
The concentrated filtrate moves into the proximal tubule. Notice the capillaries that wrap around the tubules. At
the points of contact with the tubule and the capillaries, water and nutrients are reabsorbed into the blood. In
addition, wastes remaining in the blood after filtration are passed to the tubule. The filtrate flows from the
proximal tubule and into the Loop of Henle. The loop of henle concentrates the filtrate, by removing more water
from it, and passes it to the distal tubule. From the distal tubule it travels to the collecting duct - now called urine.
The collecting duct prepares the urine for transport out of the body, it is collected in the renal pelvis where it
eventually enters the ureter. From there it goes to the bladder.
Meanwhile, the blood capillaries that are twisted around the nephron join back to the renal vein, from there the
blood travels to the posterior vena cava, eventually reaching the heart where it is oxygenated once again.
Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes
in some organisms:
DIFFUSION
 is passive form of transport  cannot work against a concentration gradient
 too slow for the normal functioning of the body
 non selective [relies on random movements of molecules]  unable to selectively reabsorb useful solutes
OSMOSIS
 is passive form of transport
 Water movement only  would only allow water to move out of the body, not the nitrogenous wastes
 In the kidney, some useful products are reabsorbed into the body
– not possible with diffusion [active transport needed]
 Osmosis without active reabsorption of water would result in excess water loss
 The kidney functions by using excreting all the blood substances in the nephron ‘outside’ the body and then
selectively (actively) reabsorbing useful materials
Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian
kidney
In the mammalian kidney, both active and passive transport processes occur.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 involves an expenditure of energy through the process of ATP splitting
 moves against a concentration gradient e.g. when salt moves to an area of high salt concentration from a
low salt concentration
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 involves no expenditure of energy as materials flow across a concentration gradient
Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid
composition
Proximal Tubule
 Bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed into the capillaries into the blood from the nephron, hydrogen ions are
secreted out. This maintains the pH of the blood.
 Regulation of salts also occurs here. Sodium ions are actively reabsorbed and chlorine ions follow passively.
Potassium ions are also reabsorbed. Glucose is also carried actively.
 Drugs, such as aspirin, penicillin and poisons are secreted out of the blood
The Loop of Henle
 It has a descending limb and an ascending limb
 In the descending limb, it is permeable to water, not salt.
 Water passes out of the nephron and into the capillaries by osmosis
 In the ascending limb, the walls are permeable to salt, but not water


Ascending limb is thin-walled at the bottom, and thick-walled at the top.
Salt passively passes out into the capillaries at the bottom, thin-walled section, but is actively passed out in the
top, thick-walled section.
The Distal Tubule
 Selective reabsorption of sodium ions and potassium ions occurs here again, to regulate the pH of the blood,
and the concentration of salts.
The Collecting Duct
 This is the end of the nephron, and connects to the ureters.
 The walls are permeable to water only, and water is transported out accordingly to the needs of the body
 The final filtrate is called urine.
TASKS
B. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES
A. CREATE A SUMMARY
Create a basic flowchart of the main
functions that occur in the kidney. A
brief outline of each function can be
given and its location.
E.g.
Renal artery
Bowmans capsule /glomeruli
- Blood under high pressure
1. The
tiny
filtering
units
called___________________
in
a
kidney
are
2. The process where the blood is squeezed under high pressure
is called _______________________
3. During this process, small molecules leave the blood and enter
the renal tubule. Examples of these molecules are water,
glucose, salts and _________________________
4. Examples of the things left behind in the blood include
___________________
5. The process by which some water, salt and all of the glucose
re-enters the blood is called _______________________
C. SCIENTIFIC DIAGRAM
Draw a simple diagram of a
nephron. Label the regions where
FILTRATION, REABSORPTION &
SECRETION occur.
6. The waste liquid is called ________________
7. This leaves the kidney via tubes called ___________________
8. It collects in an organ called the ___________________
D. QUESTIONS
1. Describe the function of the glomerulus
E. FUNCTIONS
and the Bowman’s capsule?
Construct a table listing the substances that are
2. Describe the function of the loop of henle?
ACTIVELY or PASSIVELY transported into or out of
3. Compare the processes of the distal tubule
the tubule. Additional information can be included.
to the proximal tubule.
F. LABELLING
Complete the diagram of the nephron [next page] by writing the labels in. Use the illustration on the front page to
assist you. Mark on the nephron the substances that are FILTERED, REABSORBED, & SECRETED. Use different
colours to show ACTIVELY & PASSIVELY transported substances.
G. HSC STYLE QUESYIONS
[5 marks]
The diagram shows a representation of a mammalian nephron.
[a] Filtration happens at A. State TWO blood components that remainin the
blood vessel after filtration.
[b] Most reabsorption happens at B. Explain why BOTH passive and active
transport are needed for this process to occur.
[c] ADH [anti-diuretic hormone] acts at C. Outline the role of ADH in
regulating water balance.
EXTENDED QUESTIONS
1. The organ that filters metabolic wastes out of the blood is called the _________________. This organ
is made of about a million functional units called ______________________. The fluid produced by
this organ is called ________________. The fluid moves from this organ through a tube called the
____________________; this tube takes the fluid to another organ, the _______________ for
storage. When this fluid is lost from the body, it leaves through a tube called the
_____________________.
2. Draw a nephron. Label & describe the function of each of the following parts of the nephron: the
glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, the loop of Henle, the
collecting duct.
3. How does fluid from blood get from the circulatory system into the nephron?
4. The movement of fluid from the glomerulus into Bowman's Capsule is called ___________________.
5. When fluid is in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, substances from the fluid are actively
transported into the blood. This process is called ____________________. Explain why this process is
important to body function.
6. When fluid is in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, substances from blood vessels
surrounding these tubules are actively transported into the fluid in the tubules. This process is called
___________________. Explain why this process is important to body function.
7. Which structures in the nephron are involved in producing concentrated urine and regulating water
balance?
8. Do ions move in or out of the descending limb of the loop of Henle? Do ions move in or out of the
ascending limb of the loop of Henle? Which ions are moved by active transport and which by
diffusion?
9. What is the effect of the loop of Henle on each of the following:
a. the concentration of solutes in the fluid in the distal convoluted tubule
b. the concentration of solutes in the fluid around the bottom of the loop of Henle
c. the concentration of solutes around the top of the loop of Henle
d. the concentration difference between the inside and outside of the collecting duct.
10. Why does fluid move out of the collecting duct? What is the result of this on urine concentration?
11. How is the process of osmosis important in determining the solute concentration of urine?
Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are
inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes in some
organisms:
DIFFUSION
 is passive form of transport  cannot work against a concentration
gradient
 too slow for the normal functioning of the body
 non selective [relying on random movements of molecules]  not
able to selectively reabsorb useful solutes
OSMOSIS
 is passive form of transport
 Water movement only  would only allow water to move out of
the body, not the nitrogenous wastes
 In the kidney, some useful products are reabsorbed into the body
– not possible with diffusion [active transport needed]
 Osmosis without active reabsorption of water would result in excess
water loss
 The kidney functions by using excreting all the blood substances in
the nephron ‘outside’ the body and then selectively (actively)
reabsorbing useful materials
Teacher only
This information is in the handout.
Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these
to processes occurring in the mammalian kidney
In the mammalian kidney, both active and passive transport processes
occur.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 involves an expenditure of energy through the process of ATP
splitting
 moves against a concentration gradient e.g. when salt moves to an
area of high salt concentration from a low salt concentration
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 involves no expenditure of energy as materials flow across a
concentration gradient
Teacher only
This information is in the handout.
5.4.4 COMPARING RENAL DIALYSIS
WITH NORMAL KIDNEY FUNCTION
To complete this task:
2.
3.
4.
5.
Save this document in your own directory.
Close the Read-only.
Complete the task
Don’t forget to include a Bibliography.
Students
3b
gather, process and analyses information from secondary sources to compare the process of
renal dialysis with the function of the kidney.
AIM
To gather information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with the
function of the kidney.
METHOD
Use the information from the websites below and the information on the mammalian kidney to help you
answer the questions below.
www.kidney.org.au/?section=2&subsection=9
www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1998/198_dial.html
*
www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/Labtutorials/Dialysis/Kidneys.html
www.shdor.org/master/biomed/phsio/dialsyis/kidney.htm
http://sniors-site.com/locations/dialysis-faq.html#7
http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/hemodialysis/
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Describe some of the causes of end-stage renal disease.
2. Explain some of the symptoms of renal failure.
3. Define the term dialysis.
4. Distinguish between haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
5. Identify the components of the dialysate and explain its function in renal dialysis.
6. Describe the procedure of haemodialysis to a patient who is about to undergo the treatment.
Using a table like Table 5.4.6 [next page] compare the process of renal dialysis to normal kidney
function.
Table 5.4.6 Comparison of renal dialysis and normally functioning kidney
FEATURE
RENAL DIALYSIS
MAMMALIAN KIDNEY
Function
Type/s of diffusion utilised
Type of diffusion membrane
Process of excretion
6. Evaluate the reliability and validity of the websites used.

This is an evaluation question so your response must be a detailed and in depth
[BLOOMS TAXONOMY states that evaluation is a higher order skill].

In your response, you might discuss the
 types of sites that the information came from e.g. com v’s edu v’s org
 if the site supports / conflicts with other information
 date of work  is it recent or very old
TYPICAL ANSWER
Compare the process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney:
The Comparison...
– People with dysfunctional kidneys are not able to remove wastes such as urea
– They have to undergo renal dialysis to regulate their blood
– The process:
 The blood is extracted from the body from a vein and passed into a dialyser, which is
a bundle of hollow fibres made of a partially permeable membrane
 The dialyser is in a solution of dialysing fluid, which has similar concentrations of
substances as blood
 The dialyser only allows wastes to pass through, and not blood cells and proteins. In
this way it is similar to the filtrations stage of the nephron
 The wastes diffuse into the solution, and it is constantly replaced
 The anti-clotting agent, heparin, is also added to prevent clotting
 The blood is then returned to the body
– Comparison of dialysis and normal kidney function:
KIDNEYS
RENAL DIALYSIS
- Active and passive transport is used
throughout the nephron.
- Uses a series of membranes [nephrons]
which are selectively permeable
- Continuous process / very efficient
- Useful substances are reabsorbed actively
by the kidney
- Only passive transport is used
- Also uses membranes [but artificial]
which are selectively permeable
- Slow process, occurs a few times a week
for patients
- Useful substances diffuse into blood from
dialysing fluid, no reabsorption
Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH [antidiuretic hormone] in the regulation of water and salt levels in
blood:
ADH does not control the levels of salt in the blood. It only controls the
concentration of salt through water retention.
ADH  Anti-Diuretic Hormone
 aka vasopressin
 Controls the reabsorption of water by adjusting the permeability of
the collecting ducts and the distal tubules.
 It is made in the hypothalamus in the brain, but stored in the pituitary
gland
 Receptors in the hypothalamus monitor the concentration of the
blood:
 High Salt Concentration: ADH levels increased, collecting ducts and
distal tubules become more permeable to water, more water
reabsorbed, concentration returns to normal  Concentrated
urine
 Low Salt Concentration: ADH levels reduced, collecting ducts and
distal tubules less permeable, less water absorbed, concentration
returns to stable state  Dilute urine
Teacher only
ADH is a:
 9 string amino acid
 Aka argentine vasopressin or
vasopressin
ALDOSTERONE:
 Produced and released by the adrenal glands, which sit above the
kidneys
 Controls the amount of salt in the blood by regulating the
reabsorption of salt in the nephrons
 High Salt Levels:
 High blood volume and blood pressure due to water
diffusing in.
 Levels of aldosterone decreased.
 Less salt reabsorbed, less water diffusing in
 Salt level decreased, blood volume and pressure decreases
 Low Salt Levels:
 Low blood volume and blood pressure due to water diffusing
out.
 Levels of aldosterone increased.
 More salt reabsorbed, more water diffusing in
 Salt levels increase, blood volume and pressure increase
 ADH acts here [distal tubule]
 Released by pituitary
 increases permeability of water in
distal tubule high concentration /
little volume
 Aldosterone acts here [distal tubule &
collecting ducts]
 Released by adrenal gland
 increase reabsorption of ions [sodium]
and water in the kidney
 no aldosterone cause severe
dehydration, and excessive potassium.
5.4.3 HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY
FOR ALDOSTERONE
To complete this task:
6. Save this document in your own directory.
7. Close the Read-only.
8. Complete the task
9. Don’t forget to include a Bibliography.
Students
3c
Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people
who cannot secrete aldosterone.
AIM
to present information that outlines the general use of hormone replacement therapy inn people who
cnnot secrete aldosterone.
METHOD
Use books and encyclopaedias, and access the websites suggested below to gather information about
aldosterone and hormone replacement therapy.
http://endocrine.niddk.nih.gov/pubs/Addison.htm
www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-aldoster.html
www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bharticles.nsf/pages/Addison’s_disease?open
*
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Outline the function of the hormone aldosterone in the body
Explain what Addison’s disease is and outline its symptoms.
Describe what is involved in hormone replacement therapy for low aldosterone levels.
Discuss any disadvantages or risks of having this treatment.
Outline the prognosis for people with Addison’s disease.
T TYPICAL ANSWER
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Aldosterone regulates the uptake of sodium ions, water uptake and secretion of
potassium ions. It acts on the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct of the
nephron.
Addison's disease is characterized by impaired function of the adrenal glands' secretion
of aldosterone. Without aldosterone, the body would not be able to reabsorb salt
(specifically sodium ions). This would result in dehydration, brain damage and death.
Fludrocortisone is an artificial hormone which can be used as a treatment for people
who cannot secrete aldosterone (due to a damaged adrenal gland; Addison’s disease). It
does the job of aldosterone.
Possible side effects include:
 Sodium and water retention
 Swelling due to fluid retention (edema)
 High blood pressure (hypertension)
 Headache
 Low blood potassium level (hypokalemia)
 Muscle weakness
 Fatigue
 Increased susceptibility to infection
 Impaired wound healing
 Increased sweating
 Increased hair growth (hirsutism)
 Thinning of skin and stretch marks
 Disturbances of the gut such as indigestion (dyspepsia), distention of the
abdomen and ulceration (peptic ulcer)
 Decreased bone density and increased risk of fractures of the bones
 Difficulty in sleeping (insomnia)
 Depression
 Weight gain
 Raised blood sugar level
 Changes to the menstrual cycle
 Partial loss of vision due to opacity in the lens of the eye (cataracts)
 Raised pressure in the eye (glaucoma)
 Increased pressure in the skull (intracranial pressure
Long-term prognosis is typically good.
Must work closely with their physician to adjust their medication dosage and
schedule to find the most effective routine.
Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain
the differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine
fish and freshwater fish:
Teacher Only
View  Read text about freshwater & saltwater fish
http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/higher/biology/genetics_adaptation/maintaining_water_b
alance_rev2.shtml
Teacher Only
Handout
5.4.1 CONCENTRATING ON URINE
To complete this task:
1. Save this document in your own directory.
2. Close the Read-only.
3. Complete the task.
4. Don’t forget to include a Bibliography.
Students
3d
analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences in urine
concentration to terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish.
AIM
To investigate the differences between land dwelling mammals [terrestrial organisms] and freshwater
fish [aquatic organisms] in terms of their ability to manage water.
METHOD
1.
Refer to the listed websites as well as other available sources of information.
www.emc.maricpa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BiobookEXCRET.html
www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/Zoology/AnimalPhysiology/Osmosregulation/Osm
oregulation.htm
http://home.comcast.net/~john.kimball1/BiologyPages/V/VertebrateKidneys.html
http://lookd.com/fish/waterbalance.html
www.holar.is/~aquafarmer/node20.html
http://science.uniserve.edu.au/school/curric/stage6/boil/balance/.
Organise the information you find in a table like table 9.4.5 below.
9.4.5 Urine production by terrestrial & aquatic organisms
Organism
Scientific
Type of
Urine produced
Reason for this type of
name
environment
[dilute/concentrated]
urine
Terrestrial
mammal
Marine
fish
Freshwater
fish
1. Analyse the information you found by answering the discussion questions below.
2. Write a short report of your investigation using the following discussion questions as guidelines.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Outline some generalisations that can be made about the urine of terrestrial
mammals, freshwater and marine fish.
2. Explain why the urine concentration of these types of organism differs referring
to the type of environment each organism lives in.
3. Define the terms ‘osmoconformer’ and ‘osmoregulator’ referring to different
types of organisms.
4. Explain why the amount of water lost in urine is a particularly important issue for
desert-dwelling terrestrial mammals.
5. Evaluate the websites used to complete this work.
TYPICAL ANSWER
Freshwater Fish:
 Osmotic Problem: They are hypotonic to their environment. Water will tend to
diffuse INTO their bodies. Salts will diffuse out.
 Role of Kidney: Removes excess water. Produces large amounts of dilute urine.

Kidneys also reabsorb salts. They also rarely drink water.
Urine: Large amount but dilute.
Marine Fish:
 Osmotic Problem: Hypertonic to environment. Water diffuses out. High salt levels
present in the water
 Role of Kidney: Continually drinks water. Kidneys reabsorb water, while actively

secreting salts. Small amounts of concentrated urine. Salt is also excreted across
gills.
Urine: Small, concentrated amount.
Terrestrial Mammals:
 Osmotic Problem: Water needs to be conserved.
 Role of Kidney: Regulates concentration of blood, while at the same time excretes
urea and conserves water.
 Urine: Concentration changes with the availability of water, as well as
temperature and water loss through sweat. Water levels in blood rise, urine
amount rises, and concentration decreases and vice versa.
5.4.1 CONSERVING WATER
Figure 1 Australian koala
To complete this task:
1. Save this ‘Read only’ in your ‘Maintaining a Balance folder’; using the title above.
2. Now you should have a workable document. Don’t forget to save.
3. Compile a Bibliography as you go – any site that you use cut and paste the URL
into a list /table at the end of the document.
4. Make sure the information you obtain is accurate and valid.
Students
3e
use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the
production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and
terrestrial animals.
AIM


To investigate the ways in which different types of terrestrial mammals and insects produce and
excrete nitrogenous wastes.
To examine reasons for these differences in terms if the environments these organisms live in
and their need to conserve water.
METHOD
1. Conduct some general research into how insects and terrestrial mammals
produce and excrete nitrogenous waste.
2. Choose one desert dwelling mammal from the list below.
3. Desert marsupial mouse
4. Bilby
5. Kangaroo rat
Figure 2 Australian desert dunes
6. Euro
7. Investigate your chosen mammal to find out how it differs from a human [another type of terrestrial
mammal] in terms of nitrogenous waste excretion, and the reasons for these differences.
8. Write a short report of your investigation using the following discussion questions as guidelines.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Do insects urinate? Outline how insects excrete nitrogenous waste.
2. Explain why water conservation is an important issue for insects.
3. Compare the desert-dwelling mammal you researched and a human in terms of the
 ways in which they obtain water
 amount of water required to survive
 amount of water lost by evaporation
 relative concentration of urine produced [dilute, concentrated]
Figure 3 Australian desert-scape
 amount and/or frequency of urination.
4. Outline the adaptations [structural, physiological, and behavioural] of the desert dwelling mammal you
chose to research that enable it to live in such a dry area.
5. Compare the kidney structure of a desert dwelling animal with a non-desert dwelling mammal.
6. Identify a generalisation that can be made about the environment an organism lives in, the need to
conserve water and the manner in which nitrogenous wastes are excreted.
Figure 4 Desert-horned lizard, Australian Red kangaroo, and Harlequin bug
Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological
functions in response to variations in the environment and discuss its
importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt
concentrations:
Read the following :
 An estuary is where a river meets the sea, and freshwater mixes with
saltwater
 In such an environment, the salinity levels are always changing
dramatically.
 From low tide to high tide, water can flow in from either the salty
ocean, or from freshwater rivers – this causes great variation in the
levels of salt in the water.
 Organisms living in such an environment need to have mechanisms to
cope with such changes in order to survive. The mechanisms are all
collectively called ENANTIOSTASIS.
 Animals [like fish] can move to avoid changes or shellfish opening and
closing. Plants must have mechanisms to help them cope with these
changing environmental conditions.
Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants
that assist in minimising water loss:
- SPINIFEX grass has extensive root
systems that can reach underground
water. Their leaves are also long and
thin to reduce water loss, and can roll
up to hide their stomates, which
prevents water loss.
 EUCALYPTUS trees are hard with waxy cuticles
- Waxy, hard leaves  reduces the amount of water lost through
transpiration from leaf surface
- leaves also hang vertically to reduce sun exposure reducing
water loss
 BANKSIA
- leaves have sunken stomates  reduces transpiration
 WATTLE
- small leaves  less evaporation of water
- hairy leaves  reduce the transpiration by trapping water.
 GREVILLIA
- narrow leaves to reduce the surface area  reducing
transpiration rates
Process and analyse information from secondary sources
and use available evidence to discuss processes used by
different plants for salt regulation in saline environments:
9.4.5 PLANTS AND SALT REGULATION
To complete this task:
1. Save this ‘Read only’ in your ‘Maintaining a Balance folder’; using the
title above.
2. Now you should have a workable document. Don’t forget to save.
3. Compile a Bibliography as you go – any site that you use cut and paste
the URL into a list /table at the end of the document.
4. Make sure the information you obtain is accurate and valid.
Students
1f
process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to
discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments:
AIM
To gather and assess information about processes used by different plants for salt regulation in
saline environments.
METHOD
Access the following websites and gather information from textbooks and journals to collate
information about the structures and processes used by different plants for salt regulation.
www.dnr.gov/marine/pub/seascience/dynamic.html
www.nhmi.org/mangroves/phy.htm
www.sfrc.ufl.edu/4H/Other_resources/Contest/Highlighted_Ecosystem/MangrovePlants.htm
www.sfrc.ufl.edu/4H/Saltgrass/Saltgrass.htm
www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishweb/2623.html
www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishweb/2635,html
http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/ha/Halophytes
Complete and answer the questions that follow.
RESULTS
Table 5.4.7
PLANT - SPECIES
HABITAT
STRUCTURES USED
FOR SALT
REGULATION
PROCESSES USED
FOR SALT
REGULATION
Smooth cord grass
[Spartina alterniflora]
Red mangrove
[Rhizophora stylosa]
White/grey mangrove
[Avicenna marina]
Saltgrass
[Distichlis spicata]
Narrow leafed wilsonia
[Wilsonia backhousei]
Beaded samphire
[Sarcocornia quinqueflora]
Sea blight
[Suaeda australis]
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Explain what the difficulties are for plants that; live in saline environments.
2. Describe some of the habitats that may have salinity problems.
3. Distinguish between a structure or a process used for salt regulation.
4. Define the term halophyte.
5. Identify and describe some adaptations of plants to saline environments using specific examples.
6. Justify your use of resources by discussing how you assessed the VALIDITY and RELAIBILITY
of your information used in the investigation.
TYPICAL ANSWER
 HALOPHYTES  plants that can tolerate high salt levels. Common in estuaries.
 GREY MANGROVES:
- Salt Exclusion: Special glands in the mangroves can actively exclude the salt from the water, so that the
-
water absorbed has a lower salt concentration than the water in the environment.
Salt Accumulation: Salt is accumulated in old leaves that drop off, so that the salt is out of the plant’s system
Salt Excretion: Salt can be excreted from the underside of the leaves of the mangrove plants; salt crystals
form under the leaves.
 SALTBUSHES:
- Salt Accumulation: This plant stores its excess salt in swollen leaf bases, which drop off, ridding the plant of
salt.
Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information
about structures in plants that assist in the conservation of
water
This investigation is easily PERFORMEDas an observation exercise, using local specimens. They must be
natives.
GATHER information by observing and recording structures in plants that assist in the conservation of water.
Many plants have adaptations to assist in the conservation of water. Here are a few adaptations to look for:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
the location and the number of stomates
the arrangement, shape and size of the leaves
phyllodes or cladodes rather than leaves
presence of a thick waxy cuticle
hairy leaves
leaves reduced to spines
leaves rolled inwards
the reflective nature of the leaf surface.
Now, find specimens around your local area and complete the table below [or similar]
plant
Adaptation
of leaves
5/student_view0/c
Adaptation
of stems
Adaptation
of roots
How this adaptation
conserves water