IB
Sports,
Exercise and
Health Science
Topic 5: Skill in Sport: Principles of skill learning
5.3.1 Distinguish between learning and performance
Investigation 1
Work with a partner. One is the student, the other is the instructor. The instructor (out of
sight) composes a sequence of movements, chosen at random. Keep the movements simple
(about 10 different ones are sufficient). The instructor practices the routine so that it can be
demonstrated to the student fluently. The sequence is then taught to the student by
demonstrating it in full and once only.
The student then performs at his/her best. This performance will probably contain some
errors. Without any explanation the instructor shows it again. The student demonstrates it
again. Repeat the procedure without verbal coaching till the sequence is performed
correctly.
Note how many mistakes of movement pattern or sequencing are made at each
performance.
Answer
Each attempt at the task is a performance, a demonstration of the learner’s ability in that
task at that time. While a person is learning, each performance is likely to be different from
(and hopefully better than) the last. As the skill is learned, performance becomes more
consistent. So learning is the process by which performance is refined in such a way that it
represents a permanent change of behavior. However, we have to be careful about making
too many assumptions about learning based on performance measures at any given
moment.
5.3.8 Explain the different types of presentation
Investigation 2
TO INVESTIGATE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF WHOLE AND PART METHOD OF
TEACHING A NOVEL SEQUENCE OF MOVEMENTS
Method : The class is divided into four groups; four group leaders are appointed. The class
teacher has previously devised and taught to the group leaders a sequence of movements
which flow into one another and which contains some complex (but not impossible) moves.
The constituent parts of the sequence are agreed.
Group A learns the sequence by the ‘part’ method (Figure 1.0 i.).
Group B learns the sequence by the ‘progressive part’ method (Figure 1.0 ii.).
Group C learns the sequence as a whole.
Figure 1.0 ‘Part’ methods of presentation
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Topic 5: Skill in Sport: Principles of skill learning
Group D learns by the whole-part-whole method.
Discussion:
1. Which group takes the longest to learn?
2. Which group performs the sequence best?
3. What seems to be the best method of teaching
for this particular skill?
Sketch graph Fig 1.1
4. You have been investigating teaching methods,
but what are the ‘confounding variables’ in this
experiment, i.e. factors other than teaching
method which may have affected the result?
Comments and Notes:
o There probably will be no clear outcome.
o Which group learns fastest depends on the
overall skill level of the group - but in theory
the sequence should be best performed by
group C, since they will have got links as
well as moves. This may however take
time!
A learning curve for positive
acceleration
o The Progressive Part participants (group B)
tend to know the beginning well - but not
the end of the sequence.
o The Whole Part Whole method (group D)
should be most effective.
5.3.3 Outline the different types of
learning curves
A learning curve for negative
acceleration
Learning Curves
Curves of learning are based on individuals’
performance at given moments in given
situations. There is no single curve of learning –
all curves are related to individuals and the skill in
question. However, certain types of curves can be
identified:
 Positive acceleration
 Negative acceleration
A learning curve for a plateau of
IB
Sports,
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
Topic 5: Skill in Sport: Principles of skill learning

Linear
Plateau
Task One: Outline and draw the FOUR different types of learning curves
2.
What causes plateau and what can teachers or coaches do to help overcome these?
Answer :
Causes of plateau :
o Psychological factors such as anxiety, boredom.
o Physical fitness deficiencies such as lack of physical ability, or poor training.
o Changes in technique.
o Changes in cognitive strategy - the way in which the athletes thinks about the skill.
Overcoming plateau:
o Identify the cause(s) of the plateau.
o Structure training and practices to ensure progress.
o Reduce psychological pressures.
3. You see a novice complete a number of tennis serves over a period of 20 minutes of
massed practice.
Sketch graph 2.0. Success rate
against time for a novice tennis
a. Sketch a graph, with time in minutes on the
player practising a serve
horizontal x-axis and success rate on the vertical yaxis, showing the possible changes in performance
of the novice over the practice period. (3 marks)
Answer:
o See sketch graph 2.0
IB
Sports,
Exercise and
Health Science
Topic 5: Skill in Sport: Principles of skill learning
b. Explain the shape of the performance curve on your graph. (4 marks)
Answer:
o Starts off at low level because novice has initially low level skill.
o With a simple closed skill, early trials show sharp increase in performance level (due
to learning strategies / associative stage).
o Upper level reached because of optimum performance
level.
o Levelling out (plateau) due to possible fatigue / lack of motivation / needs more
information to refine the skill.
o Fall in performance (alternative curve) due to lack of motivation / distractions / lack of
fitness.
c. What strategies might the teacher employ to help improve the performance of any closed
skill by a novice during a 20-minute practice session? (4 marks)
Answer :
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Challenges / competition against others of the same ability.
Setting of goals / targets.
Positive feedback : positive comments / encouragement.
Use of rest relief for recovery between bouts of work.
Change practice conditions such as whole-part-whole practice.
Use of selective attention.
Use of visualisation or mental rehearsal.
5.3.5 Define the concept of transfer
EXAMPLES OF TRANSFER TYPES
Put the following pairs of skills into one of three categories (i) very similar (ii) likely to
cause interference (iii) dissimilar.
Answer:
o Tennis serve and volleyball serve

very similar.
o Long and short serve in badminton

likely to cause interference.
o Golf drive and ten pin bowling

dissimilar.
o Straight arm pull and bent arm pull in back crawl
 likely to cause interference.
o Rugby League and Rugby Union

likely to cause interference.
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Topic 5: Skill in Sport: Principles of skill learning
o

Dismounts from the high bar and the rings in men’s gymnastics
very similar.
o Scottish folk dancing & Latin dancing

likely to cause interference.
o Ice hockey and field hockey

dissimilar.
Notes:
o These allocations are a matter of opinion, and will depend on the ability of the learner
to identify common features as between activities, and focus on these to maximise
transfer.
5.3.6 Outline the types of transfer
Investigation 3
TO INVESTIGATE POSITIVE TRANSFER EFFECTS IN SKILL LEARNING
Method : Select one form of transfer from categories 1 - 5 in Figure 3.0. Select two groups
of subjects, Group 1 and Group 2, matched for motor learning ability as far as possible.
Using the following two tasks (A and B)
o Task A = using non-preferred hand, throwing tennis ball into bin from 2.5m.
o Task B = using non-preferred hand, throwing dart into bull of dartboard from 2.5m.
Success criteria for:
o Task A = 4 successive balls on target.
o Task B = 4 successive darts in the bull.
Experimental protocol:
o Group 1 practises on Task A for 10 minutes.
o Group 2 relaxes and waits without practice.
o Both groups then begin Task B, and time is taken to successfully complete the task.
What might you expect in the learning of Task A to transfer positively to learning in Task B.
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Topic 5: Skill in Sport: Principles of skill learning
Figure 3.0 Categories of transfer
Decide on the criteria you will use to determine that learning has taken place; for example,
you might decide that seven accurate shots out of ten in a novel aiming task constitutes
learning.
Group 1 learns Task A and then Task B.
Group 2 learns only Task B.
Results : Determine which group learned Task B more quickly.
Table 3.1 Sample results - Times taken to learn task B
subject
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
mean
Group 1 (A + B)
5m 30s
7m 20s
6m 32s
12m 32s
4m 54s
5m 12s
7m 16s
6m 55s
7m 01.4s
subject
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Group 2 (B only)
8m 35s
10m 42s
9m 40s
5m 25s
10m 31s
7m 20s
9m 10s
12m 05s
9m 11.0s
Discussion: Assuming all other variables have been controlled (a dangerous assumption
under the circumstances of a class experiment), what do your results tell you about the
possibility of transfer between Task A and Task B for Group 1?
Answer:
o Results tend to indicate a transfer effect, in that the group who had the opportunity to
learn in one situation was able to transfer this learning to a similar one and thus learn
the second task more quickly.
o Any experiment can be improved by improving the reliability and validity of the test.
IB
Sports,
Exercise and
Health Science
Topic 5: Skill in Sport: Principles of skill learning
How might you improve the experiment so that you could be more confident of your results?
Answer: Reliability and Validity.
Discuss ways in which the validity of the results is compromised by the conditions under
which the experiment is conducted i.e. lack of control of environment, groups etc.
Reliability:
o Defined as the extent to which repeating the test under very similar conditions would
produce a similar result.
o Assuming an intrinsically reliable test, reliability can be assured by ensuring that the
test protocol is carried out exactly on each occasion.
Validity :
o Defined as the extent to which a test measures that which it is supposed to measure.
o Proper construction of a test is achieved by controlling all extraneous variables so that
you are measuring only those variables in which you are interested.
o In this case you would select the groups randomly or match the groups for variables
such as motor-ability, gender, sporting experience and age.
Review Questions
1. Give a sport-related example of a) positive transfer and b) negative transfer.
Answer :
o Positive Transfer : the effect of a good basic throwing action should provide the
foundation of throwing a netball/ passing the ball with a lacrosse stick / throwing the
javelin.
o Negative transfer : tennis players find it difficult to bend their arms when playing
squash strokes.
2. List the six categories of transfer and give an example for each.
Answer :
Skill to skill :
o Example : tennis serve compared with an overarm volleyball serve.
Practice to performance :
o Example : an athletic field event, the learner tries to simulate the competitive
environment in training so that the ‘feel’ of the event is the same in competition.
Abilities to skill :
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Sports,
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Health Science
Topic 5: Skill in Sport: Principles of skill learning
o Example : a person who shows skill at a number of different sports (and
could therefore be said to have ‘ability’) could have transfer from these abilities to a
new game or skill.
Bilateral transfer :
o Example : throwing a ball with either hand or kicking with either foot.
Principles to skill :
o Example : knowledge of a skill principle (body position or sequence of actions - from a
theoretical explanation) could be transferred to learning the actual skill.
o A coach could explain the essentials of giving topspin to a table tennis ball, the
learner would then make a good attempt at the skill.
Stage to stage :
o Example : building a skill on those learned previously, a trampolinist will practice and
become able to do a single forward somersault with facility.
o The next stage would involve an attempt at a double forward somersault.
3. List four requirements for positive transfer to occur.
Answer:
o The greater the similarity between the skills, the greater the chance of positive
transfer between the skills.
o New skills that are closely related to previously learned skill.
o General strategies of attack and defence can be transferred in invasion games.
o A skill must be well taught for effective transfer to another skill.
4. Give an example of a coach using positive transfer to develop a technique.
Answer:
o The coach might organise a number of drills or practices that are related to the
desired activity (perhaps parts of a serial activity) but do not include the full activity.
o The learner will repeat the drills so that the drill movement will become well practised,
in the hope that this element of the total skill will also become fluent within the context
of the total skill.
o An example of this would be the learner practising soccer dribbling drills around
cones or along pitch lines, and shooting drills into a small square marked at head
height on a wall.
o Hopefully the skills of close control and accurate shooting would transfer to the game
situation.
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Health Science
Topic 5: Skill in Sport: Principles of skill learning
5. How can transfer be detrimental to performance? Give a practical example. (3
marks)
Answer:
o The performance of one skill may well hinder the performance of another.
o Because there may well be inappropriate movements / information processing which
may confuse the performer.
o For example, a badminton player may play tennis immediately after playing
badminton and the forehand in tennis may be far too ‘wristy’ because of the confusion
in the response.
6. How can a coach ensure that as much positive transfer takes place as possible in a
training session? (5 marks)
Answer :
o The coach uses as many different practices as possible in training.
o To ensure the building of schema.
o Make sure training is relevant to the ‘real’ game.
o Tell performers about transfer to heighten awareness.
o Avoid confusing practises to avoid negative transfer.
o Ensure that skills are thoroughly learned before moving on to other skills.
o Give distributed practice sessions / rest intervals for mental assimilation.
7. Define the terms positive transfer and negative transfer in the context of someone
learning a sport skill. (2 marks)
Answer:
o Positive transfer refers to the enhancement of
performance of a skill being learned as a result
of the previous learning of one (or more) other
skill(s).
o Negative transfer refers to the impairment of
performance of a skill being learned as a result
of previous learning of one (or more) other
skills.
Figure 3.2 Extents of transfer in
various situations
8. Figure 3.2 shows different extents of transfer in
different situations labelled A, B, and C, give
examples of one pair of games type skills which
illustrate the kinds of transfer indicated. (4 marks)
Answer:
Situation A : Positive transfer
o Tennis serve compared with an overarm volleyball serve.
o Where the striking action and desired outcome are similar.
Situation B : Negative transfer
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Topic 5: Skill in Sport: Principles of skill learning
o Good examples would be volleying in tennis and badminton.
o Where although there is a distinct similarity in the movements, there are subtle
differences in technique (e.g. use of the wrist). This tends to cause interference
between the two skills.
o At the same time it is possible that some positive transfer will occur, but between
more similar elements such as body positioning for the shot.
Situation C : Zero transfer
o Any relevant examples of dissimilar skills such as a ‘discrete’ golf shot with a static
ball as compared with a ‘dynamic’ skill such as dribbling a basketball.