The Muslim Empires
Timeline
570 -Muhammad born
632 -Death of Muhammad
632-634 -Ridda Wars under Abu Bakr
Sunnis (backed Umayyad) vs. Shi’a (backed Ali)
661-750 -Umayyad caliphate (Sunnis) (711 –Sind Kingdom of India takenMuhammad ibn Qasim)
732 -Battle of Tours -Muslims defeated by Charles Martel (France)
744-750 -(3rd civil war) (anger at Umayyad luxurious living). Abbasid- traced
heritage from Muhammad’s uncle, al-Abbas (Sunnis who used Shi’a supporters)
750 – Abbasid caliphate begins (victory at the Battle of the River Zab). Abu alAbbas dinner party-slaughtered Umayyads. Nickname al-Saffah meaning the blood
shedder!
786-809 –Reign of Harun al-Rashid (thousand and one nights) Excesses!
777 -Independent dynasty in Algeria, 788- Morocco, 800- Tunisia
809 -First war between Abbasid princes over succession: after death of Harun, idea of
body guards and personal armies developed  846 slaves mercenaries murdered the
caliph and ruled through the Abbasid caliph.
945- Persian Buyids (Shi’a) capture Baghdad (remember they had advised
various Abbasid caliphs). Abbasid rule became weak b/c of slave armies and taxes
so independent kingdoms formed in former lands. Called themselves sultans.
1055-Seljuk Turks: (Sunnis) ruled in name of Abbasid caliphs like the Buyids
1096-1099 First Christian Crusade, 1099 Jerusalem taken and Muslim/ Jewish
inhabitants massacred. 12th century Muslims united under Saladin (Salah-ud-Din)
and they reconquered. Last crusader kingdom fell with fall of Acre in 1291
1206 – Delhi sultanate in India –Mahmud of Ghazni (Turkish slave dynasty who
seized Afghanistan in 962) led expeditions and Muhammad of Ghur who
conquered (assassinated 1206 by Qutb-ud-din Aibak who took power)
1258- Mongols (Hulegu) captured Abbasid capital of Baghdad and killed the 37
caliph.
1260- Ain Jalut-Mongols defeated by Mamluks (Turkish slave army that ruled
Egypt)
1281 –Ottoman dynasty founded
1453-Ottomans capture Constantinople
1402- Timur the lame’s invasions
“The Tiger”
• Babur became the 1st Mughal emperor of India!
• He claimed heritage to rule parts of central Asia from
Chinggis Khan (mother’s side) and Timur (father’s side).
However, his empire was quite small and realistically they
kept losing many battles! 
• He also lost some lands to the powerful Muslim Safavid
dynasty in the early 1500’s!
• He set his eyes on taking control of northern India which
had been controlled by various Muslim dynasties out of
Delhi. He was outnumbered 10 to 1, plus the Lodi sultan
(Ibrahim) had war elephants! Babur won by using cannons
which panicked the elephants causing them to trample their
own warriors! He also had superior firepower which
allowed him great advantage too.
• By the end of 1530 Tiger was the ruler of northern India
and was the founder of a new dynasty, the Mughal dynasty
of India. They ruled various parts of India for some 300
years!
• Three major Muslim dynasties of this time: Ottoman
Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire
• They came to power after the fall of the Mongols and the
harsh rule of Timur (power vacuum), they were created by
warrior leaders, and were Turkish-speaking nomadic
groups.
• The Mughals were successful because they relied on
cannons and muskets whereas other armies were not as
skilled yet in that technology!
• However the Mughals differed in that their conquest were
not launched out of religious desires like the Ottoman and
Safavid Empires
• Rival dynasties-sunni and shi’a split
• Science declined, but art/ architecture flourished!
Exchange between the 3 Muslim empires
Ottoman Empire (13-14 century)
• Prior to the rise of the Ottoman Empire Turkish peoples had
played key roles in Abbasid Empire as soldiers and
administrators
• Able to seize power because of the fall of the Seljuk Turks and
invasion of Mongols starting in 1243
• Eastern Anatolia turned into a chaotic state with warring Seljuk
sultans and people fleeing Mongolian raids. One such group,
Ottomans, began building a new empire in the western part of
the Anatolia. They were named after their leader, Osman.
• By 1350’s expanded beyond the Bosporus straits and in 1453
Ottoman sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople. Pillaged
and looted for 3 days! Other sultans extended into Syria and
Egypt while also expanding into Europe in the Balkan peninsula
and Hungary! Ottomans captured major Mediterranean cities
and began to control Mediterranean trade: Rhodes, Crete, and
Cyprus were all captured. The Ottomans also drove the
Venetians and Genoese from Eastern Mediterranean and even
threatened southern Italy with invasion.
Fall of Constantinople
Mehmed II
Great Ottoman leaders
• Mehmed II (1432-1481) – one of the greatest military geniuses
of world history. He consolidated the expansion of the Ottoman
Empire in Asia Minor and in 1453 organized the siege of
Constantinople. He personally directed the combined land and
naval assault and brilliantly improvised the tactics that led to the
fall of the city. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans was a
watershed.
• Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566) {Dynastic Wars of
Europe} He entered into an alliance with Francis I of France to
control the powers of Charles V of Spain and the Holy Roman
Empire. He then captured places like Budapest and and really
threatened Europe! The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559
ended the conflict. The Habsburgs couldn’t dislodge the
Ottomans from Hungary while they fueled their New World
wars. 1557 Spain and France declared bankruptcy  Francis I
son, Henry II, never forgave his father for abandoning him in
France and sought to make Charles V (his jailer pay). He
celebrated the treaty as a great victory and had a big feast and
entertainment including a jousting tournament in which he
died!!!!
A State geared to warfare
• Importance of military leaders directly affected the economy. A
warrior aristocracy developed where warriors were granted
control over lands and peasants in order to support their
households and military retainers
• Warrior aristocracy began to compete with religious leaders,
administrators, and even the sultan for power (revenue and labor
control)
• mid 15th century imperial forced made up of infantry divisions
called Janissaires (many conscripted in conquered areas as
adolescents). The boys were legally slaves even though they were
well educated and converted to Islam. Some even served in
palaces but the majority became Janissaries. (there when
Constantinople was sacked)
• Controlled the artillery and firearms of the Ottoman war machine
and became the most powerful component of the military. Began
to want political influence and by the 16th century could depose
the sultan and name which son would succeed him!
Sultans and court
• Caliph was an absolute monarch, but realistically needed to
work with the various fractions within the state and pit them
against each other: warrior elite, Janissaries, religious scholars,
legal experts, traders- both Muslim and dhimmis [people of the
book-Christian and Jewish]. Sultans were often capable rulers
who had effective administration and gave tax relief to peoples
• As wealth and empire grew so too did the sultans lavish
lifestyle with many wives and a large harems. The day to day
administration was carried out by the large bureaucracy headed
by the wazir (vizier). The vizier was the head of the
administration and held more real power than the sultan.
However, early sultans did like to lead their men into battle!
• Inherited succession problems like other Muslim empires
(vague principles over succession ) This could and did led to
warfare! Muhammad’s lack of naming an heir would still
plague Muslim empires well into the early modern period
Constantinople Restored
• After Mehmed II sacked Constantinople in 1453 he then moved to restore
the city to its former position of splendor. Specifically the Hagia Sophia.
Improved the city via Muslim advancements in architecture. Each sultan
created beautiful mosques and palaces like Suleymaniye built by Sulieman
(Suleyman) the Magnificent.
• Schools, hospitals, mansions, rest houses, and gardens were built around
the city to make it beautiful
• Built coffeehouses where men would come to gossip, read, and debate.
These men like to smoke tobacco coming out of America. Merchants and
artisans were members of guilds and the Ottoman regime regulated
business, weights and measurements, and commercial exchange.
• Language switch from Arabic to Persian to Turkish
• Ottoman Empire combined European, African, and Asian peoples
Problem of Ottoman Decline
• The decline of the Ottoman Empire was somewhat slow and went by in
stages, however, the Ottoman Empire is a story of great success. The
dynasty ruled for more than 600 years!!!! They ruled until the 20th century
with internal revolts and pressures from Russia (Crimean War), Austria,
Spain, and even the Safavid empires just to name a few.
• By 17th century the main power of the Ottoman Empire was in decline. As
conquest diminished and lands were lost to enemies the Ottomans couldn’t
maintain its oversized bureaucracy and military  Corruption followed and
local officials began to retain more and more revenue from the sultan 
local officials also squeezed the peasants more for labor and taxes which
cause peasant rebellions and peasants to flee!  Changed how they treated
potential princes where princes were kept like hostages instead of given
military and political positions…made them weak and inexperienced 
Decline of the caliber of the Ottoman rulers had devastating effects on
government…no more warrior/ rulers and the discipline of the government
and armies decline while weak rulers gave into the pleasures of the palace:
drinking, drugs, and their harems!
• Battle of Lepanto in 1571 when the Spanish under King Philip II defeated
them! Christian victory and marked the beginning of the Ottoman decline
in European power politics 
Military Reverses
• Along with the political decline the military began to decline too. The Janissaries
didn’t want to give their power up and continued to control artillery and
firearms, but failed to develop and keep up with the technology of their
European counterparts 
• West- light field artillery
• 1571 Battle of Lepanto  -lost power on the sea in Eastern Mediterranean. Still
launched an assault into N.Africa to preserve Islam there. Also, the Europeans
were increasing ship technologies for Atlantic trade like galleons.
• Also failed to defeat the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean and the coast of
Africa  (worked with Indian allies)
• Portugal also imported from Africa directly into Portugal and thus cut out the
middle man of the Muslim empire. The Ottomans no longer could tax the trade
and make their critical revenue because Europeans made direct trade links to
Africa and India
• The economy was only further set into decline because of the large amount of
bullion that started to flow into the country from the Americas. The influx of
bullion effected all countries including the Ottoman Empire and caused long
term inflation in the already slow and declining economy 
• The idea that what happened in Europe was of little consequence also negative
effected the Ottomans. They failed to recognize the revolutionary advances
going on in Europe as such the Ottomans didn’t develop a strong country that
could resist European dominance 
Battle of Lepanto: 2nd painting obviously a Christian perspective!
Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids
• First years of the 16th century the Safavids founded a dynasty
that ruled in modern day Iran restoring the Persian empire. They
became the political power, culturally creative, and the center of
Shi’ism! (Remember the Buyids from Persia were Shi’a)
• They were frontier warriors that spread a militant form of Islam.
They were also Turkish nomadic peoples who took advantage of
the power vacuum created after the Mongols and Timur (much
like the Ottomans)
• Safavids were Shi’a while Ottomans were Sunni!!
• Sunni – believed the 1st 3 caliphs (Bakr, Umar, and Uthman) vs.
Shi’a ( Ali –Mohammad’s cousin/ son-in law succession)
• Over time the difference between Sunni and Shi’a became much
more than just succession, but also doctrine, ritual, and law
disagreements!
• Also, division started within the different sects too
• The Ottoman vs. Safavid became one of the most sectarian
struggles in the history Islam (sectarian = related to sect)
• Safavid dynasty (Red Heads) were created from Sufi mystics and
religious preachers
• Sail al-Din (leader and where name comes from) led a militant
campaign to reform and spread Islam. Participated in fierce local
fighting that killed the first 3 leaders.
• 1501 victory at Tabriz…Ismail named shah (or emperor) of Safavids
• The Safavids later conquered Persia and advanced into Iraq. They
drove out the Ozbegs (their enemy) and even found success along the
Ottoman border with conversion from Sunni to Shi’a!
• Chaldiran (Aug. 1514) epic battle between the Ottoman Sunni vs.
Safavid Shi’a. This was fueled by Safavid persecution of Sunni and
borderland support of Shi’a. While the Ottoman sultan called for the
open slaughter of all Shi’as in the empire.
• Ismail’s forces were busy fighting in the east and therefore his full
forces weren’t at the battle. While the Ottoman sultan, Selim, had
muskets and cannons and his full forces were at the battle.
• Huge Safavid defeat!!! But the Ottomans were not able to conquer so
the Safavid’s recovered. However, Safavid expansion westward
stopped along with the expansion of Shi’ism too.
Safavid ruler Shah Esmail(Ismail) killing
Uzbek leader in battle, 1510
Politics and War Under Safavid Shahs
• Ismail retreated to his palace after his defeat at Chaldiran to escape…this
led to turmoil within the empire  He was overthrown by Shah Tahmasp I
(1534-1576) who moved to restore power and check the Turkish chiefs and
Ozbegs (which he subsequently did).
• Shah Abbas I (1587-1629) (the great) was the shah during the height and
prosperity of the Safavid empire. He created a warrior nobility out of the
Turkish chiefs and allowed them control over villages with peasants
providing food and labor for their needs. Powerful warriors also held key
posts in the administration. They were seen as a threat so the Safavid
leaders started to recruit Persian to work in court and imperial
administration.
• Safavid leaders also start a similar practice to Ottomans with Janissaries.
They have a slave army of young boys from southern Russia which they
educate and convert. They hold power over firearms in the military and gain
power. They begin to also hold political powers over time like the
Janissaries.
• The Safavid also called on Europe for assistance against the Ottomans. The
Sherley brothers from England taught the Safavids about cannons and
muskets and the Safavids created special slave infantry and a special
regiment of musketeers with the knowledge. This helps the Safavids to
become stronger and promised security to its people.
Shah Abbas I and Isfahan
State and Religion-Safavids
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Turkish language gave way to use of Persian language.
Safavid leaders took on Persian titles like padishah or king of kings
Claimed to be divine or Shi’a imams –descents of Ali
Shi’a ideology modified to be a pillar of society and was upheld by the
state
-relied on Persian scholars
-Mullahs- state supported mosque leaders who went along with the
planned and direct state religion
-Holy day of the week=Friday and they had to give sermons
cursing the first 3 caliphs each Friday!
• Most Iranians converted to Shi’ism during the Safavid rule. Safavids
also pressured other religions like Christians and Jews to convert.
• Religion- ideological and institutional support of Safavid dynasty.
Religion became part of the Safavid peoples’ identity and culture: had
Shi’a religious celebrations and festivals that were only found in Safavid
Shi’ism like the pilgrimage to Karbala in Iraq. These difference set
Safavid Shi’ims apart for other Arab and Turkish neighbors.
Elite Affluence and Artistic Splendor
• Safavid rulers built and restored the land and great cities.
The greatest patron of art/ architecture/ restoration was
Shah Abbas I
• Shah Abbas I (1587-1629): created great mosques,
public bath, gardens, roads, rest houses for merchants/
travelers, and even workshops where manufactured
goods like silk and carpets were made. Abbas I also
encouraged the economy by making trade and travel
safer. He encouraged trade within the Safavid empire
and also international trade with India, China, and
Europe (Portuguese and later the Dutch and English
became increasing familiar in the Persian Gulf and
Arabian sea)
• Abbas I greatest projects were found in his capital at
Isfahan.
Society and Gender (Ottoman and Safavid)
• Both ruled by absolute monarchs and both had warrior aristocracy along with
powerful slave armies! In both societies the demands by the warrior aristocracy on
peasants created many problems and abuses. This led to banditry, peasant
uprisings, and peasants fleeing.
• Both dynasties established imperial workshops were products like weapons, rugs,
and silks were manufactured. Both created policies to encourage international
trade. The Ottomans here proved more successful in the short run because they had
more access (location and people with overseas trade links). The Safavid economy
was not as developed as the Ottoman economy and remained backward.
• Both dynasties patronized the arts and architecture
• In both dynasties, women were disadvantaged legally and socially: subordinate to
fathers, husbands, no real political or religious power. In settled areas patriarchal
and restrictive practices like seclusion and veiling were imposed on women,
especially the elite! Evidence of a struggle where some women were found not to
cover and to wear brightly colored garments. Many women active in trade and
even money-lending. Wives and concubines influences rulers and princes. Court
records reveal that women had Islam laws that protected their rights to inheritance,
decent treatment by spouse, and divorce in extreme cases. However, these are
exceptions and most women lived lives of low contact and full of domestic chores
and hobbies. Women during these great Islamic civilizations disappeared from
history   
The Rapid Demise of Safavids
• Shah Abbas I (1587-1629) reflected the Safavid Empire at its height. But the
Safavid Empire would rapidly fall from power…due in part to this great and
wise shah 
• Abbas I fear was to be overthrown (usurped) by his sons. With conspiracy
theories feed to him like honey from his advisors, Abbas I reacted with
violence. He killed or blinded all who could legitimately succeed him
(remind of you of perhaps Ivan IV???)
• Abbas I had a very weak grandson who was placed on the throne after his
death b/c it was thought that he could be easily manipulated  Princes
started to kept in the court much like in the Ottoman Empire which led to the
decline in the quality of ruler! There were other able shahs like Abbas II
(1642-1666) but they were too few of them to halt the decline of the empire!
Factional disputes, rebellions within in empire while nomadic raiders,
Ottomans, and Mughals armies took lands!
• March 1722 Isfahan attacked by Afghani tribes. By October 80,000 people
in the city died  With the fall of Isfahan the Safavid Empire ended.
• Nadir Khan Afshar – tried to restore the Safavid Empire and proclaimed
himself shah in 1736…short-lived though. The area of the Safavid Empire
became a battleground for neighbors!
Mughals and Apex of Muslim India
• India was a very diverse area and much larger than we think of it
today. There were many, many kingdoms controlled by local princes.
• Muslims started their advance in 711 with the conquest under the
Umayyads of the Sind Kingdom
• Then during the time period of the Abbasid Empire an Afghani slave
army broke free of Abbasid control and began raiding into north India
• From 1206-1526 these Afghani Muslim leaders established a
kingdom in north India =Delhi Sultanate
• Under the Delhi Sultanate Islam continued progressing well into India
and South East Asia. However, India had a much longer and very
complex society and religion. Hinduism continued to be the main
religion of India and from time to time conflict occurred between the
two religions.
• The last century of the Delhi Sultante the sultan began to lose much
power and many territories broke free of their control to form
independent territories: both Hindu and Muslim kingdoms formed
(Gujerat, Malwa, Bengal = muslim kingdoms)
Mughal Dynasty
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•
Islam reached its peak in South Asia under the Mughal dynasty created by Babur
in 1526
Babur was a Turkish chieftain who was driven out of his lands by rival chieftains.
His goal was always to retake Ferghana. However, as he tried to take back the
kingdom, the Safavid Empire expanded cutting off his advance 
Babur expanded into N. Indian in order to gain booty to finance various campaigns
to retake his lost kingdom, Ferghana. But they wars to retake Ferghana were
unsuccessful so Babur decided to focus on India and to expand there. He defeated
the Lodi Sultan of Delhi [Delhi Sultanate]. The Lodi Sultan had many more men
and a large elephant force. He should have easily conquered Babur. However,
Babur had firearms and during the conflict the sound scared the elephants who
ended up actually getting confused and turning on their own army!
Babur then conquered the Indus/ Ganges plains and began the Mughal dynasty in
India that would rule parts of India for over 300 years!
Babur was dynamic: he was a fierce soldier/ great military strategist/ musician/
patron of art/ even wrote histories and designed garden!
Humayan-in 1530 Humayan the son of Babur took over rule at 18. Babur
unexpectedly died at 48 (he fell ill and died within days). With a very young son
on the throne enemies quickly began to strike at the kingdom (Brothers, rajputs,
and even Afghanis)! By 1540 Humayan was force to flee his empire and lived in
the Safavid court in Persia. From there he began fighting his enemies. By 1556
Humayan restored Mughal rule in India in Delhi. He then started a campaign of
expansion, but it was cut short! He fell down the steps of his library with books in
hand on his way to prayer. He hit his head on the steps and died within days!
Babur
Akbar
Akbar
• Ruled India at the same time that Elizabeth I ruled England, Philip II ruled
Spain, and Suleyman the Magnificent ruled the Ottoman Empire! Akbar was
one of the greatest rulers of all world history and fit within the other rulers of
time.
• Akbar succeeded his father Humayan at 13 years after his unexpected fall.
Being so young the Mughal enemies again fixes themselves to pounce!
However, even at a young age Akbar proved to be a genius commander.
• Known for territorial and political centralization
•
Akbar slept only about 3 hrs a night and worked constantly on improving the Mughal
Empire:
-mission to unite India under 1 rule
-personally oversaw building of military and administrative systems that were more
effective  Divided Empire into provinces, districts, and subdistricts. Started to pay
some officials in money instead of land. Reformed the revenue collection of the country
- patron of the arts
-made important social reforms like encouraging intermarriage between Muslims and
Indians, abolished the jizya or head tax on non-believers, made Muslims respect the
scared Hindu cow, and promoted Hindus to higher offices in government.
-policy of reconciliation and cooperation with Hindu princes and people. Would
conquer Muslim kingdoms and depose leaders, but worked with rajputs who submitted
to his power. He could pit the rajputs against powerful Turkish commanders and
balance the powers of the empire better!
Akbar
• Conquered the Muslim kingdoms of : Gujerat, Malwa, and
Bengal
• Akbar also married various rajput Hindu princesses to make
alliance stick.
• New faith, Din-i-Ilahi, wasn’t accepted by either Muslims nor
Hindus  Akbar thought it would unite his people and end
conflict especially dealing with religion
• Mughals also had a warrior aristocracy given land grants with
peasants forced to support them in return for loyalty and cavalry
• Revenue was gained via tribute and taxes
• Hindus held power if they swore allegiance to Mughals
Social Reforms and Change
• Akbar: Public works projects, improved the calendar,
created living quarters for beggars/ vagabonds,
regulated consumption of alcohol (son alcoholic)
• Encouraged women to remarry if they were widows,
prohibited the sati (), was against child marriages
(no law b/c it was so popular with elite), tried to work
against the purdah or seclusion of women
• Akbar died in 1605 and outlived friends and family to
see his sons fighting over the throne and the failture
of Din-i-Ilahi. His successors (Jahangir/ Shah Jahan)
were alive during the peak of the Mughal Empire, but
were more interested in the pleasures of life and art
rather than leading well (more poverty, less
innovation/ science, less discipline esp. with soldiers!
Jahangir and Shah Jahan
• Under their leadership the massive
expansion of the Mughal dynasty and the
centralization of the government continued.
• They conquered Muslim kingdoms of the
Deccan AND made the powerful Muslim
kingdoms of Bijapurt and Golkunda vassals
to the Mughal Empire.
• They were best known for their love of art
and architecture. There were many famous
buildings constructed during their reigns.
Mughal Splendor and Early European Contacts
• Developed trade during the 17th century with
Europe! Remember the 7 Years War and the Black
Hole of Calcutta
• India became known for its various industries,
especially cotton! They made the best cotton in the
world and our names for fabric are related directly
to India:
Calico-(1494-1505) (a printed cotton cloth) Indian city of Calicut cloth
Chintz-(1605-1615) (printed or glazed cotton fabric, typically bright
Muslin-(1600) loosely woven cotton fabric
Pajamas- (1870-1875) India: loose fitting trouser
• Cotton was popular in Europe because it was
cheap, colorful, and easy to wash.
Artistic Achievement-Mughals
• Jahangir/ Shah Jahan continued with government and
fought enemies while expanding the empire-much due
to what Akbar had established. However, they were
more interested in the good like: drinking, female
dancers, pleasure gardens, polo matches (Indian), ox,
tiger, elephant fights, pachisi (life size version),
fashion, and court ceremonies
• Jahangir and Shah Jahan were some of the greatest
patron of art/ architecture in history of the world.
They expanded painting workshops, build the Taj
Mahal, Red Fort at Delhi, Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra =
blended Persian and Indian traditions with a fuse of
Islamic traditions. They desired to created a paradise
on Earth.
Taj Mahal
Red Fort at Delhi
Akbar’s Tomb –Sikandra
Court Politics and Position of Elite/ Women
• Jahangir/ Shah Jahan did not handle the day to day administration of the Mughal
government instead they left this to their bureaucrats. While they were focused
on the pleasures of life their wives strove to influence their reigns and gain
power.
-Nur Jahan (light of the world) married Jahangir. She was a widow who
later moved to the court and he noticed her beauty and decided she should be
one of his wives. She was very intelligent and capable and became the true
leader behind the powers of the sultan. Jahangir had became addicted to wine
and opium and Nur Jahan took power in the court by placing relatives in
important positions. She was a great patron to the arts and charity.
-Mumtaz Mahal (Shah Jahan’s wife) He loved her and was so devoted that
he built the Taj Mahal for her. In 1631 Mumtaz died around the age of 40 giving
birth to her 19th child! Shah Jahan said “Empire has no sweetness” and “life has
no relish for me now.” To enshrine his wives memory, he ordered a tomb be
built “as beautiful as she was beautiful.” Fine white marble and fabulous jewels
were gathered from all over Asia while a workforce of 20,000 individuals
worked for 22 years to build the famous tomb called the Taj Mahal! Shah Jahan
also built the Red Fort at Delhi and the Peacock Throne (priceless seat of gold
encrusted with diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and pearls).
• Status of women declined: lower age for child marriage (9), sati back, seclusion
for elite women increased, Muslim women had to be veiled, and negative
effects of dowry caused female birth to be looked down upon whereas boys
were celebrated 
•
•
Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal
(moom-tahz)
Nur Jahan the wife of Jahangir was basically ruling the state. She didn’t have sons so
Jahangir’s other male children began to fight for the powers of the state. One son,
Khusrau, even tried to usurp his father and take the throne by force. He unsuccessfully
tried to murder his father. When Khusrau rebelled against his father, he turned to the
Sikhs. This was a nonviolent religious group whose doctrines blended Buddhism,
Hinduism, and Sufism (Islamic mysticism). Their leader, Guru Arjun, sheltered Khusrau
and defended him. In response, the Mughal rulers had Arjun arrested and tortured to
death. The Sikhs thus became the target of the Mughal’s particular hatred! Later,
Khusrau was partially blinded by his father as punishment for the rebellion. Then, Shah
Jahan won favor to with the help of his Nur Jahan. All possible rivals were assassinated.
Nur Jahan then changed her support which led to Shah Jahan imprisioning her once he
ascended to the throne.
Shan Jahan built the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort at Delhi, and the Peacock Throne (priceless
seat of gold encrusted with diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and pearls). While Shah Jahan
built these magnificent buildings his people suffered. When Shah Jahan became ill in
1657 his four sons fought for the throne, Aurangzeb executed his older brother (his most
serious rival), arrested and imprisoned his father, and seized power. Shah Jahan died a
few years later in prison where it was said that he had a mirror in his cell that he would
angle so that he could gaze upon the Taj Mahal.
Taj Mahal
Imperial Decline-Mughals
• Shah Jahan and Jahangir neglected the Mughal state
-bureaucracy became bloated and corrupt
-productivity and standard of living declined
• Aurangzeb (awr-uhng-zehb) seized power and imprisoned his father. He extended
the empire and built the empire to its greatest size, but power weakened too!
Aurangzeb oppressed the people by rigidly enforcing Islamic laws-outlawing
drinking, gambling, and other vices  He appointed censors to police his subjects’
morals and make sure they prayed at the appointed times. He tried to erase all Hindu
gains, banned new construction of Hindu temples, and had Hindu monuments
destroyed! He brought back the hated jizya (tax) on non-Muslim   This pretty
much outraged most Hindus around India.
• Hindu Rajputs, whom Akbar converted from enemies to allies rebelled against him!
Aurangzeb defeated them repeatedly, but never completely. In the southwest,
militant Hindus, called Marattas founded their own breakaway state. Aurangzeb
captured their leader, but the Marattas turned to guerrilla warfare. Aurangzeb could
never conquer them. Meanwhile the Sikhs transformed themselves into a militant
brotherhood. They began building a state in the Punjab (northwest India).
Aurangzeb had to levy heavy burdening taxes on the people to pay for these wars.
He had abolished all taxes not authorized by Islamic law so he ended up doubling
the taxes on Hindu merchants. This increased bitterness and led to further rebellions.
Aurangzeb need ever increasing funds for his army. The more land he conquered the
more desperate his situation became!
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
• Closest to achieving chakravartin (bringing all of India under one king)
• Problems: constant warfare, which led to increases of taxes, and he was
away fighting instead of being in the capital to make sure everything was
done correctly. Main problems were social and economic issues!
• Rajputs of Marwar rebelled against Aurangzeb over issue of Aurangzeb
annexing their lands. Punjab sikhs rebelled over land and independence,
and the Marathas also fought the Mughals.
• Aurangzeb didn’t loses any territory and was able to contain these
rebellions like with the Marathas in the battle of Panipat in 1761 were he
defeated them just north of Delhi.
• 30 years after his reign independent states start to break off the Mughal
Empire: (1) governors had too many powers from the state and no longer
listen to the sultan and became independent (2) entire provinces started to
break free like Deccan, Oudh, and Bengal.
• Also, around this time the French and British show up in India to make
commercial claims. The British East India Company works with local
rajputs and gains grounds that way. So as the Mughal dynasty was
receding, the local rajputs were growing in power, and the British were
forging powerful alliances and building up their presence in India. *
Black Hole of Calcutta*
Global Connections
• Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires were similar to the growth of
Russia and China (they too had Muslim populations, absolute rule,
centralized state, and expansion based on new military techniques
• Muslim empire retained active trade from Middle East, Africa, India, to
Asia (slaves, spices, etc)
• Silver from the Americas flowed into areas like Asia to pay for luxury
goods
• Europe became increasingly assertive by establishing merchant groups
with their own laws not subject to state law!
• Technology and science slowed in Muslim empires
• Muslim empires didn’t feel that Europe was a threat! The lack of
meeting the growth of Europe led to their destruction and the
weakening of their economies.
• Muslim empires couldn’t compete politically or militarily with Europe
• Mughal decline opened the door for European control in India (British/
French –Black Hole of Calcutta)