Study Guide
History and Trends of Health Care
4000 BC – 3000 BC Primitive Times
 Illness and diseases were a punishment from the Gods
 Tribal witch doctors treated illness with ceremonies
 Herbs and plants used as medicines (morphine and digitalis)
 Trepanation or trephining to create a hole in the skull
 Average life span 20 years
3000 BC – 300 BC Ancient Egyptians
 Physicians were priests
 Bloodletting or leeches used as medical treatment
 Average life span 20 years
1700 BC – AD 220 Ancient Chinese
 Believed in the need to treat the whole body by curing the spirit and nourishing the body
 Recorded a pharmacopoeia of medications based mainly on the use of herbs
 Used therapies such as acupuncture
 Began to search for medical reasons for illness
 Average life span was 20-30 years
1200 BC –200 BC Ancient Greeks
 First to observe the human body and the effects of disease – led to modern medical
sciences.
 Believed illness is a result of natural causes
 Used therapies such as massage, art therapy, and herbal treatment
 Average life span 25-35 years
753 BC – AD 410 Ancient Romans
 Established first hospital (caring for solders in their homes)
 First public health and sanitation systems by building sewers and aqueducts
 Average life span 25-35 years
AD 400 – AD 800 Dark Ages
 Began after the fall of the Roman Empire
 Emphasis on saving the soul and study of medicine was prohibited
 Monks and priests treated patients with prayer
 Average life span 20-30 years
AD 800 – AD 1400 Middle Ages
 Renewed interest in medical practices of Greek and Romans
 Bubonic Plague killed 75% of population in Europe and Asia
 Average life span 20-35 years
AD 1350 – AD 1650 Renaissance
 Dissection of body led to increased understanding of anatomy and physiology
 Invention of printing press allowed medical knowledge to be shared
 Average life span 30-40 years
16th and 17th Centuries
 Cause of disease still not known – many people died from infections
 Invention of the microscope allowed physicians to see disease-causing organisms.
 Apothecaries led to development of pharmacies
 First vaccination developed – smallpox
 Average life span 35-45 years
18th Century
 Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) created the first mercury thermometer
 John Hunter (1728-1793), established scientific surgical procedures and introduced tube feeding
 Benjamin Franklin invented bifocals
 Average life span 40-50 years
19th Century
 Formal training for nurses began
 Infection control developed once microorganisms were associated with disease
 Viruses discovered in 1892
 Women became active participants in health care
 Average life span 40-60 years
20th Century
 Increased knowledge about the role of blood in the body
 ABO blood groups discovered
 Found out how white blood cells protect against disease
 New medications were developed
o Insulin discovered and used to treat diabetes
o Antibiotics developed to fight infections
o Vaccines were developed
 New machines developed
o Kidney Dialysis Machine
o Heart Lung Machine
o Surgical and diagnostic techniques developed to cure once fatal conditions
 Organ Transplants
 Test tube babies
 Implanted first artificial heart
 Health Care Plans developed to help pay the cost of care
 Medicare and Medicaid marked the entry of the federal government into the health care
arena
 HMOs provided an alternative to private insurance
 Hospice organized
21st Century
 The first totally implantable artificial heart was placed in a patient in Louisville, Ky. In 2001
 The threat of bioterrorism lead to smallpox vaccination of the military and first responders
in 2002
 The Netherlands became the first country in the world to legalize euthanasia in 2002
 The Human Genome Project to identify all of the approximately 20,000 to 25,000 genes in the
human
 Stem cells were used in the treatments of disease early in the 2000’s and lead to increased
research in the treatment of cancer and other diseases
 President George W. Bush approved federal funding for research using only existing lines of
embryonic stem cells in 2001
 Advanced Cell Technology announced it cloned a human embryo in 2001 but the embryo did
not survive
 The U.S. FDA approved the use of the abortion pill RU-486 IN 200
 The standards for Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information, required under the
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA) of 1996, went into effect in 2003
 The Medicare Prescription Drug Improvement and Modernization Act was passed in 2003
 Vaccinations for cervical cancer and herpes zoster (shingles) in 2006
Potential for 21st Century
 Cures for AIDS, cancer, and heart disease
 Genetic manipulation to prevent inherited disease
 Nerves in the brain and spinal cord are regenerated to prevent paralysis
 Antibiotics are developed that do not allow pathogens to develop resistance
 Average life span 90-100 years
Individuals who made historical contributions to health care
Hippocrates (c. 460 – 377 BC)
 Greek physician known as the “Father of Medicine
 Authored code of conduct for doctors known as the “Hippocratic Oath” that is the basis of
medical practice today
 Believed illness was not caused by evil spirits and stressed importance of good diet, fresh air,
cleanliness, and exercise
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
 Invented the microscope lens that allowed visualization of organisms
 Scraped his teeth and observed the bacteria that causes tooth decay
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
 Invented bifocals
 Found that colds could be passed from person to person
Ephraim McDowell (1771 - 1830)
 Surgeon from Danville, Ky.
 Performed the first ovariotomy -(surgical removal of the ovary) - to remove a 22 pound tumor
Edward Jenner (1749-1823)
 Developed a vaccination for smallpox in 1796
Rene Laennec (1781-1826)
1. Invented the stethoscope in 1819
2. First stethoscope was made of wood
Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910)
 First female physician in the United States in 1849
Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)
 Known as the “Founder of Modern Nursing”
 Established efficient and sanitary nursing units during the Crimean War in 1854
 Invented the call bell system and use of dumbwaiters to deliver meals
 Begin the professional education of nurses
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
 Known as the “Father of Microbiology”
 His germ theory proved that microorganisms cause disease
 Proved that heat can be used to destroy germs through a process called pasteurization
 Created a vaccine for rabies in 1885
 Founded the basic rules for sterilization
Joseph Lister (1827-1912)
 Used carbolic acid on wounds to kill germs
 First doctor to use an antiseptic during surgery
Clara Barton (1821-1912)
 Volunteer nurse for wounded soldiers during the Civil War
 After Civil War, established a bureau of records to search for missing men
 Campaigned for the USA to sign the Treaty of Geneva, which provided relief for sick and
wounded soldiers
 Formed American Red Cross in 1881 and served as its first president
Robert Koch (1843-1910)
 Developed the culture plate method to identify pathogens
 Isolated the bacterium that causes tuberculosis
Wilhelm Roentgen (1845-1923)
 Discovered roentgenograms (X-rays) in 1895
 Let doctors see inside the body
 X-rayed wife’s hand
Sigmund Freud (1836-1939)
 Discovered the conscious and unconscious part of the mind
 His studies were the basis for psychology and psychiatry
Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)
 Discovered penicillin in 1928 which is considered one of the most important discoveries of the
twentieth century
Jonas Salk (1914-1995) and Albert Sabin (1906 – 1993)
 Discovered polio vaccine
 Saved many people from this virus that paralyzed thousands of adults and children each year.
Mary Breckinridge (1881-1965)
 Established Frontier Nursing Service in Hyden, KY
Francis Crick (1916-2004) and James Watson (1928- )
 Described the structure of DNA and how it carries genetic information in 1953
 Built a three-dimensional model of the molecules of DNA
 Shared the Noble Prize in 1962
Christian Barnard (1922 – 2001)
 Performed first successful heart transplant in 1968
Robert Jarvik (1946 - )
 Creator of the first artificial heart
 On December 2, 1982, it was implanted into Barney Clark, who lived for the next 112 days
 The second patient, William Schroeder, lived for 620 days
Ben Carson (1951 - )
 Famous for his surgeries to separate Siamese twins
 Currently Director of Pediatric Neurosurgery at John Hopkins
 He has refined hemispherectomy, a surgery on the brain to stop seizures
Choosing a Career
• Choosing a career involves making some complex decisions.
• It is important to focus on matching your interests, abilities, and needs with a career that fits them
well.
• You might start by asking yourself questions such as:
– What am I really like?
– What are my strengths / weaknesses?
– What might I want to be doing in one year? Five years? Ten years?
Health Careers
• Workers in this field often get a high level of personal satisfaction from helping people in need.
• Health care workers are in high demand, and the supply is currently lower than desired. As a
result:
– Many jobs are available.
– Many jobs offer high pay.
– Scheduling is flexible
– Job security is high.
– Competition is low
When researching health careers it is important to understand the:
• Duties of the job
• Educational requirements
• Job outlook
• Average yearly income
• Ability to progress in the career level to higher paying positions
• Pros and cons of the career
• Education Levels
Education may involve different levels of study.
The level of education needed varies for each health care career.
• Health occupations education (HOE) programs can prepare a person for entry-level work after
graduation or even while still in school.
•
•
An associate’s degree involves two years of training for a specific career and is usually offered at
a community college or a technical or career school.
Other higher education degrees are typically offered at a college or university.
– A bachelor’s degree usually requires four or more years of study
– A master’s degree, one or more years beyond a bachelor’s degree
– A doctorate, two to six years beyond a bachelor’s or master’s degree.
Credentials and Accreditation
• Credentials ensure that workers have the vital skills and are competent, which helps to protect
patients.
• Accreditation certifies that a program of study meets or exceeds a minimum standard of quality.
Types of Credentials
• Certification states that the worker has fulfilled the education and performance standards and is
qualified to do the job.
• With registration, the names of people who are qualified to work in a career are kept on an official
list. The list is called a “registry.”
• Licensure is established by law and is mandatory.
– A government agency authorizes people to work in select careers.
– Requirements may vary from state-to-state.
– Usually involves passing a state board test and maintaining certain standards.
Professional Development
• Even after becoming employed, a person needs to continue to get more education.
• In many health care careers, Continuing Education Units, or CEU’s, are required to renew
licenses or to stay certified or registered.
Trends
• Because of high costs, smaller facilities use multi-competent or multi-skilled workers who are
trained to perform a variety of skills.
• Entrepreneur is an individual who organizes, manages, and assumes the risk of a business.
– Physicians, dentists, and optometrists who run their own practices.
– A therapist who travels to clients’ homes to deliver services.
– A medical billing specialist who gets information over the Internet and then completes
the required forms at home
National Health Care Skill Standards
• Developed to indicate the knowledge and skills of health care workers primarily at the entry and
technical levels.
• Divided into 6 groups.
– Health Care Core Standards
– Therapeutic/Diagnostic Core Standards
– Therapeutic Cluster Standards
– Diagnostic Cluster Standards
– Information Services Cluster Standards
– Environmental Services Cluster Standards
Career Levels
• Aide or Assistant: 1 or more years of training on-the-job, in the classroom, or a combination of
both.
• Technician: 2-year associate’s degree or 3-4 years of on-the-job training.
• Technologist or Therapist: 3-4 years of college plus work experience. Usually a bachelor’s
degree, and sometimes a master’s degree, is required.
• Professional: 4 or more years of college with a bachelor’s or master’s degree or a doctorate.
Often clinical training is also required.
Dental Careers
• Focus on the health of the teeth and soft tissues of the mouth
– Dentists
– Dental hygienists
– Dental laboratory technicians
– Dental assistants
Diagnostic Services
• Perform tests or evaluations that aid in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury,
or other physical conditions
– Registered Diagnostic Vascular Technician (RDVT)
– Electrograph (EKG) Technician
– Medical Laboratory Technologist (MT)
– Phlebotomist
– Radiologic Technologist AART
Emergency Medical Services
• Provide emergency, prehospital care to victims of accidents, injuries, and sudden illnesses
– Emergency Medical Technician (EMT)
• (EMT-1) (EMT-2) (EMT-3)
– Paramedic
Health Information and Communication Services
Work to maintain complete and accurate patient records
– Medical Records Administrator
– Medical Transcriptionist
– Unit Secretary / Unit Coordinator
– Medical Illustrator
– Medical Librarian
Hospital / Health Care Facility Services
Operate the support departments such as:
– Administration
– Business office
– Admissions office
– Central/sterile supply
– Housekeeping
Medical Careers
Broad category that includes physicians and other individuals under the supervision of physicians
– Physicians (MD) (DO) (DPM) (DC)
– Physicians assistants (PA)
– Medical assistants (MA)
Mental and Social Services
Focus on helping people with mental or emotional disorders or those who are developmentally delayed
– Psychiatrist
– Psychologist PsyD
– Psychiatric / Mental Health Technicians
– Social Workers / Sociologists
Mortuary Careers
Provide services that involve preparation of the body, performance of a ceremony that honors the
deceased and meets the spiritual needs of the living, as well as cremation and burial of the remains
– Funeral directors
– Embalmers
– Mortuary assistants
Nursing Careers
Provide care as directed by physicians that focuses on the mental, emotional, and physical needs of
patients
– Registered Nurses (RN)
– Licensed Practical Nurse (LPN)
– Nurse Assistant
– Patient Care Technician
– Surgical Technician
Nutrition & Dietary Services
Promote wellness and optimum health through the knowledge of nutrition
– Dietitians (RD)
– Dietetic Technician (DT)
– Dietetic Assistant
Therapeutic Services
Provide care for patients through a variety of treatments for injuries, physical, mental, and emotional
disabilities
– Occupational Therapists & Assistants
– Physical Therapists & Assistants
– Pharmacists
– Massage Therapists
– Respiratory Therapists
– Speech-Language Therapists
– Athletic Trainer
Veterinary Careers
Provide care for all types of animals
– Veterinarians (DVM or VMD)
– Veterinary Technician (VT)
– Veterinary Assistant
Vision Services
Provide care to prevent and treat vision disorders
– Ophthalmologists
– Optometrists (DO)
– Ophthalmic Medical Technologist (OMT)
– Ophthalmic Technicians (OT)
– Optician (OA)
– Ophthalmic Laboratory Technician
Organizations
 A professional organization is a group that exists to further a certain career. Their goal is to
protect the interest of the public as well as those of the professionals.
 Civic and community organizations exist to enhance the well-being of all people in an area
through volunteer service actions
 Organizations:
o Provide a place for people who share the same interests to meet and exchange
information.
o Allow members to grow in their leadership abilities, citizenship skills, and confidence.
o Strengthen members’ thinking skills, such as creativity, decision-making, and problemsolving.
o Support networking opportunities that can lead to job contacts.
Student Organizations
 Aim to enhance the student’s education in both its quality and impact.
 Strive to help the student build knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will lead to success in the
workplace.
 Often sponsor special competitions with the goal to encourage pride and excellence in work.
 Often award scholarships to make sure that deserving students can get the further training they
need.
Health Occupation Students of America
 Organized in 1976 as the only organization dedicated to meeting the needs of students pursuing
a career in health care
Choosing a Career
• Choosing a career involves making some complex decisions.
• It is important to focus on matching your interests, abilities, and needs with a career that fits them
well.
• You might start by asking yourself questions such as:
– What am I really like?
– What are my strengths / weaknesses?
– What might I want to be doing in one year? Five years? Ten years?
Health Careers
• Workers in this field often get a high level of personal satisfaction from helping people in need.
• Health care workers are in high demand, and the supply is currently lower than desired. As a
result:
– Many jobs are available.
– Many jobs offer high pay.
– Scheduling is flexible
– Job security is high.
– Competition is low
When researching health careers it is important to understand the:
• Duties of the job
• Educational requirements
• Job outlook
• Average yearly income
• Ability to progress in the career level to higher paying positions
• Pros and cons of the career
• Education Levels
Education may involve different levels of study.
The level of education needed varies for each health care career.
• Health occupations education (HOE) programs can prepare a person for entry-level work after
graduation or even while still in school.
• An associate’s degree involves two years of training for a specific career and is usually offered at
a community college or a technical or career school.
• Other higher education degrees are typically offered at a college or university.
– A bachelor’s degree usually requires four or more years of study
– A master’s degree, one or more years beyond a bachelor’s degree
– A doctorate, two to six years beyond a bachelor’s or master’s degree.
Credentials and Accreditation
• Credentials ensure that workers have the vital skills and are competent, which helps to protect
patients.
• Accreditation certifies that a program of study meets or exceeds a minimum standard of quality.
Types of Credentials
• Certification states that the worker has fulfilled the education and performance standards and is
qualified to do the job.
• With registration, the names of people who are qualified to work in a career are kept on an official
list. The list is called a “registry.”
• Licensure is established by law and is mandatory.
– A government agency authorizes people to work in select careers.
– Requirements may vary from state-to-state.
– Usually involves passing a state board test and maintaining certain standards.
Professional Development
• Even after becoming employed, a person needs to continue to get more education.
• In many health care careers, Continuing Education Units, or CEU’s, are required to renew
licenses or to stay certified or registered.
Trends
• Because of high costs, smaller facilities use multi-competent or multi-skilled workers who are
trained to perform a variety of skills.
• Entrepreneur is an individual who organizes, manages, and assumes the risk of a business.
– Physicians, dentists, and optometrists who run their own practices.
– A therapist who travels to clients’ homes to deliver services.
– A medical billing specialist who gets information over the Internet and then completes
the required forms at home
National Health Care Skill Standards
• Developed to indicate the knowledge and skills of health care workers primarily at the entry and
technical levels.
• Divided into 6 groups.
– Health Care Core Standards
– Therapeutic/Diagnostic Core Standards
– Therapeutic Cluster Standards
– Diagnostic Cluster Standards
– Information Services Cluster Standards
– Environmental Services Cluster Standards
Career Levels
• Aide or Assistant: 1 or more years of training on-the-job, in the classroom, or a combination of
both.
• Technician: 2-year associate’s degree or 3-4 years of on-the-job training.
• Technologist or Therapist: 3-4 years of college plus work experience. Usually a bachelor’s
degree, and sometimes a master’s degree, is required.
• Professional: 4 or more years of college with a bachelor’s or master’s degree or a doctorate.
Often clinical training is also required.
Dental Careers
• Focus on the health of the teeth and soft tissues of the mouth
– Dentists
– Dental hygienists
– Dental laboratory technicians
– Dental assistants
Diagnostic Services
• Perform tests or evaluations that aid in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury,
or other physical conditions
– Registered Diagnostic Vascular Technician (RDVT)
– Electrograph (EKG) Technician
– Medical Laboratory Technologist (MT)
– Phlebotomist
– Radiologic Technologist AART
Emergency Medical Services
• Provide emergency, prehospital care to victims of accidents, injuries, and sudden illnesses
– Emergency Medical Technician (EMT)
• (EMT-1) (EMT-2) (EMT-3)
– Paramedic
Health Information and Communication Services
Work to maintain complete and accurate patient records
– Medical Records Administrator
– Medical Transcriptionist
– Unit Secretary / Unit Coordinator
– Medical Illustrator
– Medical Librarian
Hospital / Health Care Facility Services
Operate the support departments such as:
– Administration
– Business office
– Admissions office
– Central/sterile supply
– Housekeeping
Medical Careers
Broad category that includes physicians and other individuals under the supervision of physicians
– Physicians (MD) (DO) (DPM) (DC)
– Physicians assistants (PA)
– Medical assistants (MA)
Mental and Social Services
Focus on helping people with mental or emotional disorders or those who are developmentally delayed
– Psychiatrist
– Psychologist PsyD
– Psychiatric / Mental Health Technicians
– Social Workers / Sociologists
Mortuary Careers
Provide services that involve preparation of the body, performance of a ceremony that honors the
deceased and meets the spiritual needs of the living, as well as cremation and burial of the remains
– Funeral directors
– Embalmers
– Mortuary assistants
Nursing Careers
Provide care as directed by physicians that focuses on the mental, emotional, and physical needs of
patients
– Registered Nurses (RN)
– Licensed Practical Nurse (LPN)
– Nurse Assistant
– Patient Care Technician
– Surgical Technician
Nutrition & Dietary Services
Promote wellness and optimum health through the knowledge of nutrition
– Dietitians (RD)
– Dietetic Technician (DT)
– Dietetic Assistant
Therapeutic Services
Provide care for patients through a variety of treatments for injuries, physical, mental, and emotional
disabilities
– Occupational Therapists & Assistants
– Physical Therapists & Assistants
– Pharmacists
– Massage Therapists
– Respiratory Therapists
– Speech-Language Therapists
– Athletic Trainer
Veterinary Careers
Provide care for all types of animals
– Veterinarians (DVM or VMD)
– Veterinary Technician (VT)
– Veterinary Assistant
Vision Services
Provide care to prevent and treat vision disorders
– Ophthalmologists
– Optometrists (DO)
– Ophthalmic Medical Technologist (OMT)
– Ophthalmic Technicians (OT)
– Optician (OA)
– Ophthalmic Laboratory Technician
Organizations
 A professional organization is a group that exists to further a certain career. Their goal is to
protect the interest of the public as well as those of the professionals.
 Civic and community organizations exist to enhance the well-being of all people in an area
through volunteer service actions
 Organizations:
o Provide a place for people who share the same interests to meet and exchange
information.
o Allow members to grow in their leadership abilities, citizenship skills, and confidence.
o Strengthen members’ thinking skills, such as creativity, decision-making, and problemsolving.
o Support networking opportunities that can lead to job contacts.
Student Organizations
 Aim to enhance the student’s education in both its quality and impact.
 Strive to help the student build knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will lead to success in the
workplace.
 Often sponsor special competitions with the goal to encourage pride and excellence in work.
 Often award scholarships to make sure that deserving students can get the further training they
need.
Health Occupation Students of America
 Organized in 1976 as the only organization dedicated to meeting the needs of students pursuing
a career in health care