Mr. Marston
Dominion Christian High School
Marietta, Georgia
9th Grade Geography



Relative: is where
something is in relation to
something else.
Example #1: By the ice
cream shop, two miles
from here.
Example #2: Our U.S.
office is on Galveston
Island located in
southeastern Texas in the
Gulf of Mexico, about 48
miles southeast of
Houston. That's our
relative location.



Absolute: exact place
where something is
located, usually using
latitude and longitude.
Example # 1
Lake Maracaibo of
Venezuela is at 10°36'
N latitude and 71°33' W
longitude.



Key: list that explains
what the symbols
stand for.
Compass Rose:
indicates 4 cardinal
directions (north,
south, east, and west)
Intermediate
directions: (NW, SW,
NE, SE)

Scale: shows
relationship between
map measurements
and actual distances
Physical Map
Political Map
Special Purpose Map:
Showing aid from
European Union.
Globe: A scale model of
the Earth.
Map: symbolic
representation of all or
part of the planet on a
flat piece of paper.
Goode’s Interrupted
equal Area projection
map.
Winkel Tripel Projection
Mercator Projection
Robinson Projection

Equator: Located at zero degrees
latitude (North or South,) is 24,901.55
miles long and divides the Planet Earth
into the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres.
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn:
Located at 23.5 degrees North and 23.5
degrees South of the Equator, this area
of Planet Earth (between those two
lines) is known as the "Tropics," and is
indicated with a lighter blue color on
the above globe. This area experiences
no dramatic change in season because
the sun is consistently high in the sky
throughout the year.
Prime Meridian: Located at zero degrees
longitude (East or West), it divides the
Planet Earth into the Eastern and
Western Hemispheres, and is the line
from which all other lines of longitude
are measured.
2/3 of all ships and
tonnage used the
Greenwich Meridian by
1884.
Many countries had their
own meridians. Difficult
for international travel.

The International Date Line sits on the 180º line of
longitude in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and is
the imaginary line that separates two consecutive
calendar days.
It is not a perfectly straight line and has been moved
slightly over the years to accommodate needs of
various countries in the Pacific Ocean. Note how it
bends to include all of Kiribati in the Eastern
Hemisphere.
Immediately to the left of the International Date Line
(the date) is always one day ahead of the date (or
day) immediately to the right of the International
Date Line in the Western Hemisphere.
Tonga and Samoa have the same time but are (1) day
apart, as Samoa is in the Western Hemisphere, on the
opposite side of the International Dateline from
Tonga.
As you travel further west, note that the time in Fiji is
(1) hour earlier than Tonga. You will also notice that
Hawaii, further to the east of Samoa, is (1) hour later
in time.
So, travel east across the International Date Line
results in a day, or 24 hours being subtracted. Travel
west across the International Date Line results in a
day being added.
 Continents
BY SIZE
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
Asia - (44,579,000 sq km)
Africa - (30,065,000 sq km)
North America - (24,256,000 sq km)
South America - (17,819,000 sq km)
Antarctica - (13,209,000 sq km)
Europe - (9,938,000 sq km)
Australia/Oceania - (7,687,000 sq km)
BY POPULATION 2005 est.
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
Asia - (3,879,000,000)
Africa - (877,500,000)
Europe - (727,000,000)
North America - (501,500,000)
South America - (379,500,000)
Australia/Oceania - (32,000,000)
Antarctica - (0)
NUMBERS OF COUNTRIES
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
Africa - (53)
Europe - (46)
Asia - (44)
North America - (23)
Oceania - (14)
South America - (12)

Continent Size:
30,065,000 sq km
11,608,000 sq miles
Coastline:
30,539 km
18,976 miles
Percent of Earth's Land: 20.2%
Population: 877,500,000 (2006)
Description
Africa, the planet's 2nd largest continent,
includes (53) individual countries.
It contains the Nile River, the world's
longest, and the massive Sahara Desert,
the world's largest.
The continent's (highest point) is Mt.
Kilimanjaro, in Tanzania, 19,341ft
(5,895m), while the (lowest point) is Lac'
Assal in the small country of Djibouti, 512
ft (156m) below sea level.

Antarctica Details
Size: 13,209,000 sq km, 5,100,021 sq miles
(varies due to changing ice shelves)
Percent of Earth's Land: 8.9%
Status Antarctica, almost 98% solid ice, was finally
considered a continent in 1840, and not just a
group of isolated islands. Today it has active
territorial claims submitted by Argentina, Australia,
Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United
Kingdom. (Many of these claims are not
recognized by some countries and remain in a
constant disputed status)
Capital City none
Climate Antarctica is the coldest and windiest spot
on the planet. In fact, the lowest temperature ever
recorded on Earth was recorded in Antarctica (129.3ºF) and the mean winter temperatures range
from -40º to -94ºF. Winds are commonly
measured at up to 200 miles per hour.
Highest Point Vinson Massif at 16,066 ft. (4,897
m)

Lowest Point Bentley Subglacial Trench, -2,555 m)
Latitude/Longitude 90° S, 0.00° E
Official Language none
Official Currency none
Population Officially none, but governmental
research stations are populated with small groups
of scientists at all times. In addition, in 2003, over
13,000 tourists visited the continent.

http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/count
rys/an.htm

This region of the planet, north of the Arctic Circle,
includes the Arctic Ocean, Greenland, Baffin Island,
other smaller northern islands, and the far northern
parts of Europe, Russia (Siberia), Alaska and Canada.
The Arctic Circle, incidentally, is an imaginary line
located at 66º, 30'N latitude, and as a guide defines the
southernmost part of the Arctic. The climate within the
Circle is very cold and much of the area is always
covered with ice.
In the mid winter months, the sun never rises and
temperatures can easily reach lows of - 50º F in the
higher latitudes. In the summer months (further south),
24 hours of sunlight a day melts the seas and topsoil,
and is the main cause of icebergs breaking off from the
frozen north and floating south, causing havoc in the
shipping lanes of the north Atlantic.
The primary residents of the Arctic include the Eskimos
(Inuits), Saami and Russians, with an overall population
(of all peoples) exceeding 2 million. The indigenous
Eskimos have lived in the area for over 9,000 years, and
many have now given up much of their traditional
hunting and fishing to work in the oil fields and the
varied support villages.
The first explorers of the Arctic were Vikings.
Norwegians visited the northern regions in the 9th
century, and Erik the Red (Icelander) established a
settlement in Greenland in 982. In 1909, after
numerous attempts by regional explorers, Robert E.
Peary reached the North Pole.

As the planet's largest continent,
Asia covers about 30 percent of the
world's landmass and includes (44)
countries and assorted islands
and/or dependencies.
Significant features of the continent
of Asia include the world's tallest
mountain, Mt Everest in Nepal (and
China), rising to 29,035 ft (8,850m).
It also includes the world's lowest
point, found in the Dead Sea,
Israel/Jordan, at 1,286 ft (392m)
below sea level.
In addition, the continent includes
the world's most populated
countries, China and India; the
world's longest coastline, the world's
deepest lake; Lake Baykal, and some
of the most important rivers on the
planet.

Continent Size: 44,579,000 sq km
(17,212,000 sq miles) Percent of
Earth's Land: 30% Population:
3,879,000,000 (2005 est) Asia has
three important recognized
political divisions: The Middle East,
(or West Asia) countries are
colored a lighter shade of gray;
Southeast Asia (or South Asia)
countries are colored a medium
shade of gray, and North Asia
countries are colored a darker
shade of gray. Note that European
Russia is also considered a part of
the Asian Continent.

Asia Geography Notes
Burma: Military authorities have promoted the
name Myanmar since 1989 as the conventional
name for their state. That decision was not (and is
not) approved by any sitting legislature in Burma
and is not accepted by the U.S. government.
However, Myanmar is widely accepted by
numerous countries, and by the United Nations.
European Russia: The Russian landmass west of
the Ural Mountain is commonly referred to as
European Russia in most educational atlases, and
by the vast majority of geography experts.
It is not a separate country, but rather called that
because of its political, cultural and geographical
blendings with Europe.
Middle East: Countries considered part of the
Middle East (or West Asia) are shown in a lighter
shade of green, and their names are indicated in
red. They are all still part of the continent of Asia.
Taiwan is still considered by China to be its 23rd
province, and not an independent country. Very
few other country governments accept China's
claims of sovereignty over Taiwan.

Opinions do vary as to what countries
make up the modern definition of Asia and
the Middle East. Historically, Armenia and
Azerbaijan have been long associated with
the Middle East, but in recent years, some
sources now consider them to be more
closely aligned with Europe based on their
modern economic and political trends. The
same can be said for the island country of
Cyprus.
Turkey is officially, politically and
geographically considered part of both
Asia and Europe. The small northwestern
portion of Turkey named (Thrace) is a
recognized part of Europe, while the
largest part (Anatolia) is located in the
Middle East, a part of Asia.

Continent Size:
8,112,000 sq km
3,132,059 sq miles
Percent of Earth's Land: 5.3%
Population: 32,000,000
Highest Point:
Mt Wilhelm, Papua New Guinea
14,794 ft (4,509m).
Lowest Point:
Lake Eyre, Australia,
52ft (16m) below sea level
Description
OCEANIA, the smallest continent, is one of the
most diverse and fascinating areas on the planet.
A large percentage of geography experts now
consider the long-established continent of
Australia to be more accurately defined as
Australia/Oceania.
Collectively it then combines all of Australia, New
Zealand, Papua New Guinea, as well as the
thousands of coral atolls and volcanic islands of
the South Pacific Ocean, including the Melanesia
and Polynesia groups.
Oceania also includes Micronesia, a widely
scattered group of islands that run along the
northern and southern edges of the Equator.

Geography Notes
(Hawaii, Johnston Atoll and Midway
Islands are located for reference only,
and are not a part of Oceania.)
Melanesia includes the independent
countries of Fiji and Vanuatu, as well as
the Solomon Islands and New
Caledonia.
Micronesia islands are all part of the
same volcanic zone, and include the
Marshall Islands, the nations of
Micronesia (FSM), Palau, Kiribati and
Nauru. In addition, it includes Guam,
Saipan, the Northern Mariana Islands, as
well as Wake Island.
Polynesia contains numerous island
groups, including all of French
Polynesia and the Austral, Gambier,
Marquesas, Society and Tuamoto
islands. In addition, the Cook Islands,
Easter Island, Niue, the Pitcairn Islands,
Tuvalu, and Wallis and Futuna.

Indians were the first inhabitants here, and then, in
1492, Christopher Columbus began his exploration
of these islands, becoming the first European to
venture into the area.
After reportedly landing in the Bahamas, Columbus
named these islands the Indies, because he thought
he had finally reached Asia (and the East Indies).
Numerous explorers followed in his path, then
settlers arrived from the Americas and Europe.
Included in that mix were religious outcasts, slaves
from Africa, and a small army of pirates.
Great military powers would fight for control of the
islands, and finally, a blended mix of African and
European cultures and languages transformed this
large group of islands and its peoples into one of the
premier tourist destinations on the planet.
Long called the West Indies the overall area is now
commonly referred to as the Caribbean, a name that
became popular after World War II.
Note: In reality the Bahamas are not considered a part
of the Caribbean, however, we show them here
because of their cultural, geographical and political
associations with the Greater Antilles, and other
Caribbean Islands
.

Description Central America, a part of
North America, is a tropical isthmus
that connects North America to South
America. It includes (7) countries and
many small offshore islands. Overall,
the land is fertile and rugged, and
dominated through its heart by a string
of volcanic mountain ranges that are
punctuated by a few active and
dangerous volcanoes.
Population of Central America:
41,135,300
Highest Point: Volcan Tajumulco in
Guatemala - 13,816 ft (4,211 m)
Lowest Point: Pacific Ocean 0 ft (0 m)

Continent Size:
9,938,000 sq km
3,837,081 sq miles
Percent of Earth's
Land: 6.7%


Population:
729,000,000 (2006)
Description
Europe, the planet's 6th largest
continent includes 47 countries and
assorted dependencies and territories.
In exacting geographic definitions,
Europe is really not a continent, but
part of the peninsula of Euroasia which
includes all of Europe and Asia.
However, it's still widely referred to as a
continent.


The European continent is separated
from Asia by Russia's Ural Mountains,
and the Caspian and Black Seas.
Europe's highest point, just north of
the Georgia border in European Russia
is Mt. Elbrus at 18,481 ft (5,633m). Its
lowest point is on the edge of the
Caspian Sea, at 92 ft (28m) below sea
level.
Historically, Armenia and Azerbaijan
have been long associated with Asia and
the Middle East. In recent years some
sources now consider them to be more
closely aligned with Europe based on
their modern economic and political
trends.
In fact, both are similar to the former
CIS country of Georgia, now included as
part of Europe.

The Middle East (or West Asia) sits where Africa, Asia
and Europe meet. The countries of the Middle East
are all part of Asia, but for clarity reasons we
geographically show them here as a separate
landmass.
Opinions vary as to what countries make up the
modern definition of the Middle East. Historically,
Armenia and Azerbaijan have been long associated
with the Middle East, but in recent years, some
sources now consider them to be more closely
aligned with Europe based on their modern economic
and political trends.

The African country of Egypt is still thought (by
some) to be in the Middle East, as well as the
northern African countries that border the
Mediterranean Sea.

North America, the planet's 3rd largest continent,
includes (23) countries and dozens of small island
possessions and territories - mostly in the
Caribbean. It contains all Caribbean and Central
America countries, Canada, Mexico and the United
States of America - three of the largest countries on
the planet, as well as Greenland - the world's largest
island.
Continent Size:
24,474,000 sq km
9,449,460 sq miles
Percent of Earth's Land: 16.5%
Population: 501,500,000
Highest Point: Mt McKinley in Alaska, 20,322ft
(6,194m)
Lowest Point: Death Valley in California, -282 ft (86m) below sea level.

Description South America, the planet's 4th largest
continent, includes (12) countries and (3) major
territories. It contains the massive Amazon River
and surrounding basin - the largest tropical rain
forest in the world; the toothy-edged Andes
Mountains, that stretch the entire length of the
continent, and some of the most diverse and
spectacular landforms on the planet.
Continent Size:
17,819,000 sq km
6,879,000 sq miles
Percent of Earth's Land: 12%
Population: 379,500,000
Highest Point: Cerro Aconcagua
Andes Mountains, Argentina - 22,833 ft (6,959m).
Lowest Point: Peninsula Valdes
Argentina coastline -151 ft (-40m) below sea level
1,349 feet below sea
level
Separates Israel and
Jordan.
35,827 feet deep
Planets: spheres in space that have their own
orbits and are large enough to be rounded by
their own gravity and has become
gravitationally dominant.
Inner Planets: Closest to the Sun (Mercury,
Venus, Earth, and Mars.
Outer Planets: Farthest from the sun (Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto)
a. Terrestrial: solid rocky Crusts (Inner)
b. Gas Giant: more gaseous and less dense.
Each is like a miniature solar system:
orbiting moons and thin encircling rings.



Shares orbital
neighborhood with
another heavenly body.
Other dwarf planets
are: Pluto, Ceres (large
asteroid), Haumea,
Makemake, and Eris.
Ceres

http://www.nineplanets.org/overview.html

Asteroid: Asteroids are
rocky or metallic
objects, most of which
orbit the Sun in the
asteroid belt between
Mars and Jupiter. A few
asteroids approach the
Sun more closely. None
of the asteroids have
atmospheres.
Asteroids are also
known as planetoids or
minor planets.

Asteroids range in
size from tiny
pebbles to about
578 miles (930
kilometers) in
diameter (Ceres).
Sixteen of the
3,000 known
asteroids are over
150 miles (240 km)
in diameter. Some
asteroids even have
orbiting moons.

HOW MANY
ASTEROIDS ARE
THERE?
There are about
40,000 known
asteroids that are
over 0.5 miles (1
km) in diameter in
the asteroid belt.
About 3,000
asteroids have been
cataloged.




Core: iron and nickel. About 4,000
miles below surface of the earth.
Liquid outer core: 1,800 miles below
the surface of the earth.
Mantle: Thick layer of hot dense rock.
Comprised of silicon, aluminum,
magnesium, oxygen and other
elements.
Crust: Rocky shell forming the earth’s
surface broken into a dozen slabs of
rock called plates.








Movement of Plates

The rules of Plate Tectonics
1. Continental crust is less dense, or lighter,
than Oceanic crust so it doesn't sink. It is
never destroyed and is permanent.
2. Oceanic crust is heavier so it can sink below
Continental crust. It is constantly being formed
and destroyed at ocean ridges and trenches.
3. Continental crust can carry on beyond the
edges of the land and finally end far below the
sea. This explains why the edges of all the
continents don't have deep trenches right up
against their coastlines.
4. Plates can never overlap. This means that
they must either collide and both be pushed
up to form mountains, or one of the plates
must be pushed down into the mantle and be
destroyed.
5. There can never be gaps between plates, so
if two plates move apart, as in the middle of
the Atlantic, new rock will be formed to fill the
space.
6. We know the Earth isn't getting bigger or
smaller, so the amount of new crust being
formed must be the same as the amount being
destroyed.
7. Plate movement is very slow. Nobody could
'see' the continents moving. When the plates
make a sudden movement we call it an
Earthquake, and it's the only time we are
directly aware of the plates moving.
Courtesy http://www.geography-site.co.uk
Mid-Atlantic Trench is
spreading apart at 2.5
centimeters per year.
Iceland is separating.
Iceland: see fissure at
right (dark area)
East Africa Rift Valley: 3
plates pulling apart
(Nubian. Somalian and
Arabian).
“collision of plates”
1. Ocean and
continental plate
2. 2 large ocean plates
3. 2 large continental
plates

Subduction: sinking of
one plate under another.
Andes Mountains:
collision of Nazca and
South American Plates.
Ring of Fire in East
Asian: Eurasian and
Pacific Plates collide
Formation of Mountains
Trenches, Volcanoes,
and Islands Form
Transform boundaries slide past
each other. Pacific plate is
moving north while North
American plate moves to the
south.
San Andres Fault: one of the
few transform boundaries on
land. Most are found in the
ocean.




In some areas, plate boundaries are not
well defined.
Unclear boundaries exist over a broad
belt (called a plate-boundary zone).
One of these zones marks the
Mediterranean-Alpine region between
the Eurasian and African Plates, within
which several smaller fragments of
plates (microplates) have occurred.
Because plate-boundary zones involve
at least two large plates and one or
more microplates caught up between
them, they tend to have complicated
geological structures and earthquake
patterns.





Trenches form
Volcanoes: mountains
formed by lava or
magma that break’s
through the earth’s
crust.
Earthquakes
Mountains
Hot spots: can cause
geysers or hot springs.
Old Faithful in
Yellowstone National
Park


Weathering: Process
that breaks down rocks
into smaller pieces.
Erosion: wearing away
of the earth’s surface
by wind, glaciers and
moving water.

Physical Weathering:
Disintegration of rocks
into smaller stones,
then pebbles, then
sand. Rocks react
differently when
exposed to
temperature swings,
moisture in the air, or
pressure changes.

Chemical Weathering:
changes the chemical
makeup of rocks,
transforming their
minerals or combining
them with new
elements. (Water
dissolves minerals
found in certain rocks.
Living organisms
(lichens) produce
corrosive acids that eat
away at rock’s surface.
Plant roots enlarge
cracks in rocks

Wind: Movement of
dust, sand and soil
from one place to
another. May be
beneficial in some
cases by depositing
mineral rich soil for
farmland. Loess is a
fertile yellow gray soil
deposited by wind.
Field in Northern Europe
Before Glaciation
During Glaciation
After Glaciaition
Rain Splash
Severe Sheet erosion
1. Sun heats water in the oceans
2. Water evaporates as vapor in the
air
3. Ice and snow can change from solid
to gas directly into water vapor
4. Rising air currents take water up
into atmosphere where cooler
temperatures cause it to
condense into clouds
5. Cloud particles collide, grow, and
fall out of the sky as precipitation
6. Some precipitation falls as snow
and can accumulate as ice caps
and glaciers
No beginning or end to
water cycle
Water can change
among liquid, vapor,
and ice at various
parts in the cycle
7. Snowpacks can thaw and melt and the
melted water flows over land as the
snow melts
8. Most precipitation falls back into
oceans or onto land, where
precipitation flows over ground as
surface runoff
9. Portion of runoff enters rivers in
valleys in the landscape, with
stream flow moving water towards
the oceans.
10. Run off and groundwater are stored
as freshwater in lakes
11. Some water seeps into ground and
replenishes aquifers.
12. Over time, water returns to ocean,
where water cycle started
Evaporation: changing
of liquid water into
vapor or gas.
The sun’s heat causes
evaporation.
Condensation: excess
water vapor changes
into liquid water.
Precipitation: moisture
that falls to the ground
as rain, snow or sleet.









Agriculture
Industry
Alteration of the chemical composition of the
atmosphere
Construction of dams
deforestation and afforestation (planting
trees in an area not naturally suitable for
them)
removal of groundwater from wells
water abstraction from rivers
urbanization
97% of earth’s water
found in oceans.
Pacific: largest
Indian
Arctic
Southern (Antarctic)
Atlantic




Seas
Gulfs
Bays

Examples
Gulf of Mexico
Mediterranean Sea
Partially enclosed by
land
 Smaller than oceans
Ex:
Gulf of Mexico
Mediterranean Sea

Mediterranean Sea
Mostly in Middle East
Desalination plant in
Middle East
Lakes, Streams, and
Rivers
Lake is a body of water
surrounded by land
that may or may not be
fed by a river.

Lake Louise: British
Columbia, Canada

Groundwater:
Freshwater that lies
beneath the earth’s
surface comes from
rain and melted snow.

Aquifer: underground
layer of water-bearing
rock from which
groundwater can be
extracted.