Foundations of Science
Ch. 1-5
Scientific Inquiry
•
•
•
•
•
You may have questions when observations are made
Ex. Why do lightning bugs glow?
You may even ask questions that require experimentation
Ex. How do lightning bugs make light?
Science- is the observation, identification, description, and explanation of
natural phenomena.
Scientific inquiry
•
•
•
•
Terms you need to know:
Hypothesis- an educated guess.
Experiment- testing a hypothesis.
Theory- a large-scale general principle that explains natural phenomena. It is
supported by evidence.
Scientific process (method)
•
•
•
•
•
1. Make an observation.
2. Identify a problem to solve based on your observations.
3. Do research to find out what is already known about your question.
4. State a hypothesis (what do you think will happen?)
5. Do an experiment or set of experiments that aim to support or contradict your
hypothesis.
• 6. Collect and organize your data.
• 7. Analyze the data and draw a conclusion in terms of your original hypothesis.
Choose the best answer.
•
•
•
•
•
Identify the statement below that can be supported in a scientific way.
A. apples are more delicious than pears.
B. snails are beautiful invertebrates.
C. diamonds are the most valuable substances on earth.
D. romaine lettuce is more nutritious than iceberg lettuce.
Correct Answer.
D. Romaine lettuce is more nutritious than iceberg lettuce.
Scientific process
• Performing research
• - use sources that are reliable
• For example: use a journal or article that has been peer reviewed, not
Wikipedia!
Scientific process
• Forming a hypothesis
• - Inductive reasoning: allows you to draw on your observations of events to hypothesize a
general trend.
• Ex. Taylor notices that every time she throws a ball it comes down. She inductively reasons
that next time she throws a ball, it will come down.
• - Deductive reasoning: requires you to use a general truth to hypothesize particular events.
• Ex. Cory uses deductive reasoning when he says, “of course a ball will come down. That’s
newton’s theory of gravition. What goes up must come down. So next time a ball is
thrown, it will certainly come down.
Scientific inquiry
•
•
•
•
Experimentation
The experiment must examine only one variable at a time.
3 types of variables:
1. Independent variable: the factors changed during the experiment. These are
what the experiment is trying to test.
• 2. Dependent variable: this is the factor that is being measured to counted.
• 3. Control variables: all other factors in the experiment that you attempt to control.
These stay the same throughout the experiment.
Scientific Inquiry
• Experiments must be reproducible: someone else must be able to repeat
your experiment.
• Groups:
• 1. Experimental group- the group that will be tested.
• 2. Control group- the group that the experimental group is tested against
(compared to).
Scientific inquiry
• Collecting and presenting data
• Types of data:
• 1. Qualitative data: observations made with senses. Ex. Color, texture, taste,
or smell. More subjective.
• 2. Quantitative data: measurement. Ex. 12 meters, 3 liters, 5 minutes. More
objective.
Scientific inquiry
•
•
•
•
Data is typically presented in a graph or chart.
-bar graph
-line graph
-pie chart
Scientific inquiry
•
•
•
•
Drawing conclusions
A conclusion is a judgment based on observation and experimentation.
Making predictions
A prediction is a forecast of the possible results of events. Knowledge we
have gained from experimentation can help us make predictions.
Ch. 2 Laboratory safety
Lab safety
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Types of safety in the lab:
1. Glassware safety
2. Sharp instrument safety
3. Fire and heat safety
4. Animal safety
5. Electrical safety
6. Chemical safety
7. Eye and face safety
8. Proper dress
Lab safety
• Occupational Safety and health administration (OSHA) regulates safety of
America’s workers
• Material safety data sheet (MSDS) is a document that is used to ensure
chemical safety
Safety procedures in the field
•
•
•
•
•
1. Inform others of your intentions.
2. Never work alone.
3. Be aware of your surroundings and use common sense.
4. Bring appropriate gear.
5. Know the operation of all equipment.
Safety
• Make wise environmental choices.
• - Conservation means to carefully preserve something, such as the
environment.
• Ex. You would not want to leave litter in the area where you are doing field work.
Equipment &
measurement
Ch. 3
Glassware for Handling Liquids
•
•
•
•
Erlenmeyer flask: used to mix liquids.
Test tubes: used to mix, measure, or heat liquids.
Beakers: used to mix and heat liquids.
Eyedropper: used to dispense small amounts of liquid.
Equipment for Heating
•
•
•
•
•
Bunsen burner: a source of gas heat.
Hot plate: a source of electrical heat.
Tongs: used to grasp heated material.
Tripod: holds glassware above a Bunsen burner.
Wire gauze: usually goes on top of tripod to hold the glassware being
heated.
Equipment for Measuring Mass
• Analytical pan balance: used to accurately determine mass to the nearest ten
thousandth of a gram.
• Triple-beam balance: used to determine the mass of heavier materials to the
nearest gram.
Equipment for Measuring Volume
• Graduated cylinders: marked with a scale for measurement to accurately
measure liquid volume.
• Pipets: used to measure small liquid volumes.
Equipment for Measuring Length
• Meter stick: measures length or width.
• Caliper: measures the thickness or diameter of an object, on a smaller scale
than a ruler.
Measurement (Metric System)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Length: Meter m (millimeters mm, centimeters cm, kilometers km)
Mass: Gram g (milligram mg, kilogram kg)
Volume: Liter L (milliliter mL)
Length measures distance
Mass measures the amount of matter in an object
Volume measures the amount of space occupied by an object.
(Note: Weight and mass are NOT the same thing. Weight is a measurement of
gravitation force that attracts an object to Earth or any other center of gravity.)
Measurement
• A graduated cylinder measures volume.
• The meniscus is the curve of liquid at its surface. This is what should be
read when measuring.
• Density is a measure of how closely packed matter is within a given space.
• D= m/v
Measurement
• Temperature
• The metric system uses Celsius. 0 degrees Celsius is freezing, 100 degrees
Celsius is boiling.
• SI Unit uses Kelvin. Freezing 273.15, Boiling 373.15
• English unit uses Fahrenheit. Freezing 32 F, Boiling 212 F.
Measurement
Measurement
Measurement
Measurement
• Judging Measurements
• - Precision: is the degree of closeness within a range of results.
• - Accuracy: is the degree of agreement between a measured result and an
accepted value.
Judging Measurements
Measurement
• Remember that when there is a disagreement between a measured value and
an exact or accepted value, then error is present.
Mathematical Tools in Science
(Statistics= interpreting data using math)
• Mean: the average of the set of numbers.
• Data Set, 2, 4, 7, 15, 22
Mean= 10
• Median: the middle number of the data.
• Data Set: 2, 4, 7, 15, 22
Median= 7
• Range: the difference between the smallest and largest values.
• Ex. 18-29. The range is 11. 29-18=11
Applying Science
Ch. 4
Applying Science
• Scientists monitor themselves and their research through the peer review
process. (Peers have reviewed the research and checked it)
• Research is typically written in a format titled a research paper.
• A clinical trial is a kind of experiment where products are tested on animals
or people. (Ex. Medicine, shampoo, make-up)
Bias
• Biased data has been interpreted to suit the goals of the interpreter.
• Unintentional bias example: You believe in ghosts, so when you hear a noise
in your house you think it may be ghost activity.
• Intentional bias example: If a medicine may profit researchers, they may
approve it even if it does not work well or has terrible side effects.
Bias
• Bias can be prevented by doing blind trials.
• Blind trials have individuals that receive the real product and those that
receive a placebo (no effect. Ex. Sugar pill).
• Data is gathered from all individuals to determine if real product had the
same, more, or less of an effect than the placebo.
Risk-benefit Analysis
•
•
•
•
Do the benefits outweigh the risks?
If so, this would be an advisable course of action.
Do the risks outweigh the benefits?
If so, this would NOT be an advisable course of action.
Biology
Ch. 5
Characteristics of Life
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Living things, called organisms, must meet certain criteria.
1. Have cells
2. Sensitivity: respond to a stimulus
3. Growth
4. Homeostasis: regulate internal environment. Ex. Temperature.
5. Reproduce: sexual or asexual reproduction.
6. Metabolism: chemical reactions within a cell or organism.
7. Adaptation: organisms adapt and evolve over time.
Biological Organization
(Largest to smallest)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Biosphere: planet Earth
Biome: large land area characterized by plant life and climate.
Ecosystem: plants and animals in an environment that they live.
Community: all the living things in an area.
Population: made up of individual species within a community.
Organism: an individual.
Important Terms
• Habitat: where an organism lives.
• Niche: an organism’s role in its community.
Multicellular Organisms
• A multicellular organisms has several parts.
• 1. Organ systems- groups of organs that work together for a common goal.
Ex. Digestive system
• 2. Organs- groups of tissues that work together to complete a task. Ex.
Heart
• 3. Tissues- groups of cells that perform the same function
Types of Tissues
• 1. Epithelial- tissues that surround things and protect what is beneath it. Ex.
Skin
• 2. Connective- tissues that connect and support body systems. Ex. Cartilage
• 3. Muscle- tissues that move the body. Ex. Muscles
• 4. Nervous- nerves that carry information from the body to the brain and
back.
Cells
•
•
•
•
A cell is the smallest unit of life.
A unicellular organism only has 1 cell. Ex. Bacteria.
A multicellular organism has many cells. Ex. Dog, insect, human.
Cells have organelles.
• Organelles- organs of the cell. Ex. Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes.
• Organelles are made up of smaller particles called molecules.
Molecules
• Molecules- particles made up of two or more atoms chemically bonded
together. Ex. Water (H2O)
• Atoms- the smallest pieces of physical matter.
• Subatomic particles- these make up atoms. Ex. Protons, neutrons, electrons.