Truth in Texas Textbooks Review
Publisher/Publication/Year: Worldview/American History II: Post Civil War America to the
Present/2015
Editor: Dr. Amy Jo Baker; Editor/Consultant: Dr. Sandra Alfonsi
Problem: Bias (B), Omission of Fact (OF), Half-Truth (HT), Factual Error (FE)
The publisher responded minimally to this review. Of the 82 entries, the publisher offered two changes and two
comments; the remainder went unremarked. Numerous editorial changes were made by the publisher to Chronology,
Notable People, Art, Documents, Tutorial and Projects, ostensibly at the request of other groups/individuals (see these
entries at the end of this report as they reflect modified content from the original content reviewed.)
1.
Page #/Line #
Quote
Table of Contents
7. Include objective presentations of
contemporary social science issues with a global
perspective that are balanced, pertinent, accurate,
and current.
We select information that is pertinent to the
subject matter and always attempt to present a
balanced and accurate narrative. Because our
courses are delivered over the Internet, they may
be updated regularly to include currently
available data and breaking events. Although
WorldView Software: American History II: PostCivil War America to the Present 4 of 103
History is focused on U.S. History, we often
include material that places our nation’s history
within a broader, global perspective.
“Even when immigrants wanted to preserve their
customs, they were often forced to adapt their
diets, wardrobes, and entertainment choices to
what was available in the American market.
Objectives #7
2.
CHAPTER 4
Overview
Extended
overview
Assimilation
Problem
Fact & Source
OF


Updated by whom?
Global sources identified?
HT

Because the editor chose to use the term “often” this
passage is not incorrect, although it seems to contradict
the passage in the Narrative Overview of this same
chapter: “Immigrants frequently transplanted their
languages, food, religious practices, social institutions,
1
First paragraph,
last sentence
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3.
CHAPTER 4
Overview
Extended
Overview
Nativism
Paragraph 3
Since most Americans were Protestants and
many of the new immigrants were not, some
Americans expressed religious intolerance. They
believed that Catholics, Jews, and Buddhists
were heretical or heathens. Still others,
especially business owners and members of the
middle class, were politically conservative and
believed that immigrants were radical in their
political beliefs (either socialist or communist).
FE

and leisure activities. This completely transformed
America's cities.”
Urbanization following the great wave of immigration
from 1922 onward had a great influence on diet, attire
and entertainment. See “The Urbanization of America,”
Frederick County Public Schools
http://bit.ly/1BO1hds
On the other hand: “Most of the immigrants settled in the
cities where they could find work in the factories. There
was hardly a city of any size in America that did not have
a section designated as Little Italy. Italians would look to
settle in these areas, for it was here that they felt most
comfortable. They could speak their own language and
be understood, and they could eat food familiar to them.
This resulted in the formation of very definite ethnic
communities. The ideals, language, and customs of the
Italians were preserved because of these neighborhoods.
Little Italies could be found in major cities like Hartford,
New Haven, Waterbury, New Britain, Torrington etc.,
where they were sealed off from the wider American
society. This isolation served to nurture and maintain the
Italian ways of life (food, language, close-knit family
organization and religious practices) Students should be
allowed to visit Little Italy in New York city which
offers the best and most varied selection of Italian cuisine
on the East coast.”
The Italian Immigrant Experience in America (18701920) by Joan Rapczynski, Yale-New Haven Teachers
Institute, 2014
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1999/3/99.03
.06.x.html
The use of “heretical or heathens” is questionable. The
immigrants who came first were Irish and they were
Catholics. Then came Italians, also Catholics and Jews
from Eastern Europe. No Protestant would judge
Catholics and Jews as heretics or heathens.” Buddhists
came in the late 1870s.
Publisher’s response: Text has been revised to clarify. Please
see excel spreadsheet for exact language. [TTT Editor’s note:
2
Thus these people felt that immigrants posed a
threat to both democracy and capitalism.
4.
CHAPTER 4
Overview
Extended
Overview
City Life
“Other Urban
Problems”
Third Paragraph
5.
CHAPTER 4
Documents:
Ozawa v. United
States
Q 4 of 4
Themes
AfricanAmericans
Documents
Obama’s Speech
on Race
6.
“Crime was widespread in cities because there
were high rates of unemployment and intense
poverty. While murder rates declined in
industrialized nations such as Germany and
England, the homicide rate in the U.S. increased
dramatically from 25 murders per million in
1881 to 107 per million in 1898. Other crimes,
from pick-pocketing to bank robbery, also
increased alarmingly.”
What were the political consequences for the
Japanese community as a result of "Ozawa v.
United States"? How does the inability to
become a citizen limit one's political power?
B
Rather than disassociate himself completely from
Rev. Wright, Senator Obama used the
opportunity to explore the theme of race relations
in the United States, in the context of the
campaign, in his family, and in the wider arena
of American politics and culture. His theme was
one of progress toward the constitutional goal of
"a more perfect union."
B
no spreadsheet was identified among the numerous uploads
to the TEA website containing this revised text. And entry
was identified on one spreadsheet but it is truncated and
incomplete. It reads: “Section: "Nativism", 3rd paragraph/2nd
sentence Original sentence”]
 This is anti-foreigners propaganda.




I would take the opportunity to commend the publisher
for the inclusion and presentation of the material. The
questions are suitable to develop a student’s ability to
reason and there is adequate information to enable the
process
While this statement is in itself not untrue, the selection
of Sen. Obama’s speech is slanted toward presenting the
US as racist by nature. A better choice for this exercise
might have been Dr. Martin Luther King’s 1962 “I Have
A Dream” speech at the Lincoln Memorial. Senator
Obama’s speech, a campaign speech mainly given for
political reasons, may have been more appropriate in a
course contrasting various ideological perspectives
related to political and social movements in American
public address.
“Obama said Friday, in fact, that he doesn't much care for
the proverbial national "discussion on race" or calls to
create one.” http://www.businessinsider.com/obamatrayvon-martin-speech-race-zimmerman-trial-verdictracial-profiling-2013-7#ixzz3GwStrI9f
“The dog that didn't bark is Obama's renowned speech on
race, the one devoted to starting a national conversation
on the subject and to putting the Rev. Jeremiah Wright's
notorious comments in their proper context. The words
"all men are created equal" do not appear in it. And so it
is a very different appeal, with a very different view of
3


America, than one would find in, say, Martin Luther
King's great speech at the Lincoln Memorial. Obama
mentions the Constitution briefly, noting its "ideal of
equal citizenship" and that it "promised its people liberty,
and justice, and a union that could be and should be
perfected over time." But he does not mention the
conclusion that he arrives at in his book, namely, that the
Constitution's "people" did not refer to or include blacks,
and especially not black slaves. Although he regards both
the Declaration and the Constitution as racist documents
originally, he does not emphasize the point in his speech
because it would confirm Rev. Wright's fundamental
charge, that the U.S. is a racist country. And the point of
Obama's speech in Philadelphia, at the National
Constitution Center, was not merely to repeat his
condemnation of Wright's remarks "in unequivocal
terms" but to put the whole controversy behind him.”
Charles R. Kesler, senior fellow of The Claremont
Institute and editor of the Claremont Review of Books.
http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/10/the_au
dacity_of_barack_obama.html#ixzz3GwPICsOM
4
7.
Themes
African
Americans
Art
Black Panthers
In 1966, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton, two
young black residents of Oakland, California,
founded the Black Panther Party for SelfDefense. Their purpose was to patrol the streets
of Oakland, fully armed -- as California law
permitted -- intervening in instances of what they
regarded as police brutality against the black
community. The Black Panthers expressed strong
views about what they regarded as white
oppression of black people, and did not shy from
advocating violence when necessary to achieve
black liberation.
OF, HT






8.
Themes
African
Americans
Glossary
Terms
Black Panther
Party
9.
Themes
African
Americans
Glossary
Terms
Black power
Black Panther Party
founded in Oakland in 1966 by Bobby Seale and
Huey Newton, the Black Panthers sent armed
patrols into their city's streets to monitor
incidents of police brutality against AfricanAmericans. Not flinching from the advocacy of
violence where that was necessary to achieve
black liberation, the Black Panthers were
involved on several occasions in violent
confrontations with the police. A number of
members were ultimately imprisoned or killed.
black power
the ideology embraced by some black groups in
the late 1960s. In 1966, Stokely Carmichael, the
chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating
Committee (SNCC), used the phrase "black
power" in indicating a departure from the group's
previous support of nonviolent tactics in pursuit
of black civil rights. In other words, blacks were
to establish a separate identity as African-
Violent revolutionary organization of the 1960s and
1970s
Its members engaged in drug dealing, pimping, rape,
extortion, assault, and murder.
Aimed to harass the police, to protest against “police
brutality” and America’s allegedly racist power structure,
and ultimately to ignite a violent race war in the United
States
It is estimated that during their radical heyday, the
Panthers killed more than a dozen people.[7] As Panther
leader Eldridge Cleaver acknowledged in a June 15, 1997
Sixty Minutes interview: “If people had listened to Huey
Newton and me in the 1960s, there would have been a
holocaust in this country.”
Excerpted and adapted from “Baddest: The Life and
Times of Huey P. Newton” (Chapter 5 of Destructive
Generation, by Peter Collier and David Horowitz, 1989.)
http://discoverthenetworks.com/groupProfile.asp?grpid=
7375
OF, HT

Same as above
OF

“[Stokely Carmichael] was a paranoid, racist, who was
rejected by the civil rights movement he claimed to
serve. He was widely hated across America — and
distrusted by actual civil rights leaders — for his
virulently anti-American pronouncements and his calls
for revolutionary violence to be used to destroy both the
United States and all of Western civilization. His hatred
of America was profound. The United States, he said,
5
Americans, and a sense of pride in this separate
identity. They were encouraged to obtain
political and economic power so that they could
determine their own destinies. Carmichael also
advocated self-defense, which represented a
break from the nonviolent tactics of the SNCC,
the NAACP, and the Southern Christian
Leadership Conference (SCLC).
Student
Nonviolent
Coordinating
Committee
10. Themes
African
Americans
Glossary
Terms
Port Huron
Statement
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
(SNCC)
a group that advocated black civil rights. The
SNCC was originally organized in 1960 by
college students. The organization was largely
responsible for the nonviolent sit-in movement.
In the first major sit-in in Greensboro (North
Carolina) in 1960, black students sat down at a
lunch counter (where normally blacks would not
be served unless they were standing) and insisted
on being served. The movement spread and
many previously segregated social and business
locations were desegregated in this manner. In
1966, Stokely Carmichael became the chairman
of the SNCC. He had become increasingly
frustrated with the violence that occurred and
began advocating "black power." (also see "black
power")
Port Huron Statement
a document written by Robert Alan Haber, the
president of the Students for a Democratic
Society (SDS), and Tom Hayden in 1962 that
was intended to state the goals of SDS. It called
for moving beyond anti-communism in the
conduct of foreign policy and urged more
governmental action against racial discrimination
and poverty.
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
OF
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was “the most disgusting country in the world.” The
Trinidadian-born agitator urged that black power be used
not only to cripple America, his adopted homeland, but
also to bring down the civilized world. …
Carmichael, who popularized the phrase black power,
was a demagogue who believed that the ends justify the
means. He was a leader who had no qualms about hurting
other people on the long, blood-drenched road to utopia.
“When you talk of black power,” Carmichael said, “you
talk of building a movement that will smash everything
Western civilization has created.” More moderate civil
rights leaders at the time thought Carmichael was
dangerous and possibly deranged. They urged that he be
ostracized, treated as a “black Trotskyite.” Roy Wilkins
of the NAACP said black power was a form of racism
that could lead to “black death.” “It is a reverse
Mississippi, a reverse Hitler, a reverse Ku Klux Klan.”
“Lionizing the Enemy” by Matthew Vadum, Frontpage
Magazine, June 17, 2014,
http://www.frontpagemag.com/2014/matthewvadum/lionizing-the-enemy/
The Port Huron Statement adopted the position of "antianti-Communism," refusing to support the West in the
Cold War. The statement identified and denounced
America's many sins: racism, abundance, materialism,
industrialization, and militarism. Its prescribed solution
to Cold War tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet
Union was to entirely dismantle America's “permanent
war economy”: “Universal controlled disarmament must
replace deterrence and arms control as the [American]
national defense goal.”
http://discoverthenetworks.com/viewSubCategory.asp?id
=118
6
11. Themes
African
Americans
Glossary
Terms
Rainbow
Coalition
Rainbow Coalition
an organization founded by Jesse Jackson, a
former aide to Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Formally known as the National Rainbow
Coalition, it served as an umbrella organization
for organizing people of all races, religions, and
backgrounds to support Jackson's presidential
candidacies in 1984 and 1988. Although Jackson
did not win the Democratic nomination in either
year, he did make unusually impressive showings
in several states and is generally considered the
first African-American to make a serious run for
the U.S. presidency.
OF


12. Themes
African
Americans
Glossary
Terms
Southern
Christian
Leadership
Conference
Southern Christian Leadership Conference
(SCLC)
an organization founded by Dr. Martin Luther
King, Jr., in 1957, in the wake of the success of
the Montgomery bus boycott. Its purpose was to
coordinate and organize further civil rights
activity throughout the South.
OF

“…the Rainbow Coalition, formed in 1985 to counter
policies enacted during President [Ronald] Reagan's
second term which [Jesse] Jackson deemed
discriminatory against African Americans. … A principal
tactic by which Rainbow/PUSH drives its agenda is the
often frivolous charge of racism, followed by public
protests and threats of widespread boycotts. Throughout
its history, the organization has employed this technique
with considerable success. … In 2001, Jesse Jackson
named former (1993-1995) Chicago Democrat
Congressman Mel Reynolds to the Rainbow/PUSH
payroll as a consultant for prison reform efforts aimed at
decreasing the number of young African Americans
behind bars. Reynolds was among the 176 criminals
excused in Bill Clinton's last-minute pardons as he ended
his second term as U.S. President. Clinton's pardon gave
Reynolds a commutation of his six-and-a-half-year
federal sentence for 15 convictions of wire fraud, bank
fraud, and lies to the Federal Election Commission.
Reynolds had also served prison time for his 1995
convictions on 12 counts of sexual assault (he had sexual
relations with a 16-year-old campaign volunteer),
obstruction of justice, and solicitation of child
pornography. … Rainbow/PUSH is a member
organization of the After Downing Street, United for
Peace and Justice, and Win Without War anti-war
coalitions.”
http://discoverthenetworks.com/groupProfile.asp?grpid=
6431
“Founded in 1957 by Martin Luther King, Jr., the
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was
instrumental to the success of the 1960s civil rights
movement. Activist campaigns engineered by SCLC laid
the groundwork for such legislation as the1964 Civil
Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. In more
recent times, however, the organization has turned away
from King’s vision and embraced racial preferences. In
the years since King’s death, SCLC has evolved into an
organ of the political Left -- joining other radical groups
7

13. Chronology
1986
The Ku Klux Klan was reborn. Many people in
northern and midwestern states, as well as the
South, joined the new KKK. Claiming to be the
"protector of pure America," the new KKK was
anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-communist, antiforeign, as well as anti-black.
OF


engaged in anti-war activism and leveraging its
remaining influence to rally support for leftist
Democratic candidates.”
http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?gr
pid=6998
“Held in contempt by most white Americans, the Klan
today is virtually defunct. Close to bankruptcy, this group
which once boasted millions of members and wielded
significant political power, now has no established
alliances with mainstream white leaders or organizations,
and has no more than 4,000 members nationwide. No
Klansmen can be found among newspaper editors,
legislators, district judges, or the directors of major
corporations. And contemporary Klan leaders are capable
of attracting only a handful of white racists to their
meetings.”
http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/viewSubCategory.a
sp?id=357
The reading material does not define capitalism.
14. Chapter 5 Art
Eugene V. Debs
Question 1
Question: What is socialism? What is
capitalism?
OF

15. Chapter 5 Art
Eugene V. Debs
Question 4
Name political parties other than Democratic or
OF
Republican Parties (called ‘third parties”) that are
presently the most popular in the United States.
What effect do they have on the political system?
They were in the middle and upper
FE
socioeconomic classes and tended to be strong
church members of Protestant denominations like
the Methodists, Presbyterians,
Congregationalists, Baptists, and Christians.

The reading material does not give any information about
these parties.

Christian is not a religion. It is also not a denomination.
It is a noun used to designate any believer in Jesus Christ.
OF

16. Chapter 5
Internet Project
Activities #2
Nebraskastudies.
org
The Temperance
Movement in
Lincoln
Lines 6-11
17. Chapter 5
Glossary
Publisher’s response: The grammatical mistake is
acknowledged, but this site is an external link and we have
no control over how they edit their content.
The glossary does not contain the words “capitalist” or
“capitalism”
8
18. Chapter 5
Notable People
Clinton, William
Lines 21-22
…despite scandals involving possible sexual
improprieties on the president’s part…
FE

19. Chapter 5
Notable People
Reagan, Ronald
OF
Bill Clinton had a sexual relationship with Monica
Lewinsky.
 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/338106/Mo
nica-Lewinsky
Publisher’s response: Text has been revised to clarify.
Please see excel spreadsheet for exact language. Revised bio
for "Bill Clinton" by changing "possible" to "alleged" from
the following sentence. [TTT editor’s note: the remainder of
the spreadsheet entry is truncated and illegible.]
 The facts did not mention his second term.
20. Chapter 5
Notable People
Romney, Mitt
OF

The facts did not mention him running for president.
21. Chapter 8
Documents
Senger’s
“Woman and the
New Race”
OF

The text fails to mention that, today, Planned Parenthood
performs abortions, and that the federal government
gives money to Planned Parenthood.

http://capitalresearch.org/2012/04/planned-parenthoodfederation-of-america…
Although partially defined, this important concept should
be linked to the glossary where a more detailed definition
could be tendered, perhaps with a reference to the 10th
amendment.
Federalism may also be added to the glossary for the
same reason.
22. Chap 9
The Effects and
Heritage of the
New Deal
Para 3 Line 4
23. Chap 9
Great Depression
& New Deal
Ext Overview
The Three “R”s
Recovery
24. Chap 10
Overview
The Washington
Naval
The term “Cooperative Federalism”
OF


Measured in terms of displacement, the U.S.,
Great Britain, and Japan agreed to limit their
capital ships to a ratio of 10:10:6 respectively.
OF

There is no mention of John L. Lewis in this reading and
he is not listed in the Notable People section. Lewis was
a very important factor during the recovery period.
OF

The ratio 10:10:6 should be defined
9
25.
26.
27.
28.
Conference and
the KelloggBriand Pact
Para 2 Line 6
Chap 10
Germany and
Italy: The Quest
for Control of
Europe.
Para 2 Line 2 and
Para 4 Line 2
Chap 10
MAP
Europe:19201937
Chap 12
Cold War
Economics
Para1 All
Themes
Richard Nixon
Seeks to Reshape
U.S.
Para 1 Line 1
29. Chapter 18
Projects
American
Exceptionalism
In 1922, the Italian Fascist Party led by Benito
Mussolini, a former journalist, took control of the
government,
OF
Adolf Hitler, gained significant power in
Germany

The name of Benito Mussolini is linked to the Notable
People section.

The name of Adolf Hitler is not linked to the Notable
People section.
Narrative Section refers to “Right wing and ”Left
Wing” several times
OF

These terms should be identified in the glossary.
Soviet Influence and the Iron Curtain
OF

It would be helpful to provide a comprehensive map of
the various countries involved in the Soviet bloc and
covered by the term Iron Curtain.”
Simultaneously, President Nixon, who had
always been considered a leading Cold War
advocate staunchly committed to halting the
expansion of communism around the world,
began to reshape America's broad global
strategies.
Introduction
The concept of American exceptionalism has its
roots in the American values identified by Alexis
de Tocqueville in "Democracy in America." De
Tocqueville believed these values were different
and unique from those of other nations, and were
crucial to America's success as a constitutional
republic. The values he identified were: liberty,
egalitarianism, individualism, populism, and
laissez-faire. While there were regional,
religious, racial, gender, class, and other
differences then as now, the society de
Tocqueville observed was very different from
today's society. How universal were and are the
values on which he comments? American
Word Choice

The term simultaneously (occurring at the same time)
does not belong here. Use either subsequently or
consequently.
FE; OF


Where is the source for these statements?
Significantly, Alexis de Tocqueville (a French political
leader and historian who traversed America in 1831 and
then wrote the famous book Democracy in America in
1835) extolled:
The position of the Americans is quite exceptional, and it
may be believed that no democratic people will ever be
placed in a similar one. 7
That pronouncement resulted in the coining of the phrase
“American Exceptionalism” to express the belief that
America is extraordinary as a result of the unique and
distinctive ideas that were part of the fabric of American
government – ideas such as inalienable rights,
individualism, limited government, full republicanism,
separation of powers, checks and balances, and an
10


exceptionalism has been used to explain the
weak tradition of labor radicalism and the lack of
a socialist movement. It has also been used to
explain the strength and lifespan of classic liberal
ideology in the United States, with its emphasis
on passive government especially in the
economy.


Project
30. Chronology
For this project, read "Democracy in America,"
then complete the following using your own
research: A. Define the values de Tocqueville
identified, both in terms of 1830s society and in
terms of today's society. 1. Evaluate the claim
that these values were found only in America;
that is, that these values are different and unique
from those of other nations. 2. Evaluate the claim
that these values are necessary for a successful
constitutional republic. 3. If de Tocqueville were
observing the United States today, would he still
see these values represented? Why or why not?
B. Define America's continuing exceptionalism
in today's globalized world. 1. Did the values de
Tocqueville identified evolve over time? How?
2. What values, if any, are necessary to promote
in America today? Present your findings either
orally or visually.
1961
JOHN F. KENNEDY TOOK OFFICE AS
PRESIDENT
The Peace Corps was founded. Peace Corps
volunteers were sent to help people in poor
nations of the Third World (undeveloped nations
in Latin America, Africa, and Asia).
The Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba failed. Castro's
forces defeated a group of American-trained anticommunist Cubans who tried to drive Castro
from power.

educated and virtuous citizenry. Those ideas produced a
national unity that encompassed America’s great
diversity of race, ethnicity, and religion, thus causing
President Calvin Coolidge to exclaim:
To live under the American Constitution is the greatest
political privilege that was ever accorded to the human
race. 8
Yet Deconstructionists, rather than appreciating
American Exceptionalism and being proud of America
and its many successes, instead will point out only what
they consider to be its flaws in their concentrated efforts
to “lay low” America and American values.
http://www.wallbuilders.com/libissuesarticles.asp?id=
95644
Publisher’s response: It is not clear what is being identified
as a factual error. Which statements are being questioned?
OF
1961
January 3, 1961 - Disputes over the nationalization of
United States businesses in Cuba cause the U.S.
Government to sever diplomatic and consular relations with
the Cuban government.
February 15, 1961 - The entire United States figure skating
team is killed in a plane crash near Brussels, Belgium on
their journey to the World Championships. Seventy-three
people are killed.
11
April 17, 1961 - The Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba is
repulsed by Cuban forces in an attempt by Cuban exiles
under the direction of the United States government to
overthrow the regime of Fidel Castro.
Jane Jacobs's "The Death and Life of Great
American Cities" was published. The book
highlighted the growing problems faced by the
nation's major cities, and led to a growing
awareness of an "urban crisis" in America. The
book has been very influential with economists
and urban planners.
May 5, 1961 - The first U.S. manned sub-orbital space flight
is completed with Commander Alan B. Shepard Jr. inside a
Mercury capsule launched 116.5 miles above the earth
from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Twenty days later, President
Kennedy announces his intention to place a man on the
moon by the end of the decade.
Kennedy sent 2,000 military advisors to train
South Vietnamese government troops. Kennedy
believed this was necessary because the
communist Viet Cong were slowly gaining
control of the country.
August 13, 1961 - The construction of the Berlin Wall
begins by the Soviet bloc, segregating the German city,
previously held in four sectors by Allied forces, including
the United States. The wall would last for twenty-eight
years.
Blacks organized "sit-ins" as a way of protesting
against Jim Crow segregation in restaurants.
December 28, 1961 - The National Park Service extends its
lands into the U.S. Virgin Islands when President John F.
Kennedy proclaims the Buck Island Reef as a National
Monument. The reef includes an underwater nature trail and
one of the best marine gardens in the Caribbean Sea.
http://www.americasbesthistory.com/abhtimeline1960.html
31. Chronology
1962
Dolores Huerta and Cesar Chavez found the
National Farm Workers Association (NFWA),
which later became the United Farm Workers of
America (UFWA).
Cuban Missile Crisis threatened to bring war
between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. After discovering
that the Soviets were putting guided missiles in
Cuba, Kennedy told Khrushchev to take the
missiles out. Kennedy also ordered a blockade of
Cuba. Khrushchev at first refused and claimed
the blockade was illegal. But just when war
seemed ready to break out, an agreement was
OF
1962
February 7, 1962 - The first sign of a looming Vietnam
conflict emerges when President Kennedy admits that the
military advisors already in Vietnam would engage the
enemy if fired upon.
February 20, 1962 - Lt. Colonel John Glenn becomes the
first U.S. astronaut in orbit in the Friendship 7 Mercury
capsule. He would circle the earth three times before
returning to earth, remaining aloft for four hours and fiftyfive minutes. This flight equalized the space race with the
Soviet Union, whose Vostok I flight on April 12, 1961 with
Yuri Gagarin had become the first manned spaceflight into
orbit one year earlier. (Photo top right) President John
12
made. The Soviets promised to remove its
missiles if the U.S. promised never to attack
Cuba.
Kennedy & astronaut John Glenn inspect the Mercury
capsule in 1962. Photo: Office of the Naval Aide to the
President.
"Silent Spring" was published. This best-selling
book by Rachel Carson described the damage
done by pesticides to wildlife and the ecology. It
is often credited with re-invigorating the U.S.
and international environmental movements.
Michael Harrington's "The Other America" was
published. It described the extent to which
poverty was still a problem in the U.S., but was
ignored by policy makers. When President John
F. Kennedy read it, he decided to put the issue of
ending poverty on his New Frontier agenda.
April 21, 1962 - The Seattle Century 21 Exposition, the first
world's fair held in the United States since World War II,
opens under the theme of space exploration. Over 9.6
million visitors would attend the exposition over 184 days in
central Seattle, whose monorail still travels inside the city.
October 1, 1962 - Three thousand troops quell riots,
allowing James Meredith to enter the University of
Mississippi as the first black student under guard by Federal
marshals.
October 14, 1962 - The Cuban Missile Crises begins. In
response to the Soviet Union building offensive missiles in
Cuba, President John F. Kennedy orders a naval and air
blockade of military equipment to the island. An agreement
is eventually reached with Soviet Premier Khrushchev on
the removal of the missiles, ending the potential conflict
after thirty-eight days, in what many think was the closest
the Cold War came to breaking into armed conflict.
The active (or weakened "live") version of the
polio vaccine was approved for use to be given
orally. It had been developed by Dr. Albert
Sabin, a medical researcher at the University of
Cincinnati. It quickly became the routine vaccine
for people with normal immune systems.
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32.
1963
In the case of "Gideon v. Wainwright" the
Supreme Court ruled that government must
provide a defense lawyer for defendants who
cannot afford to hire one themselves.
OF
1963
March 21, 1963 - The last twenty-seven prisoners of
Alcatraz, the island prison in San Francisco Bay, are ordered
removed by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, and the
federal penitentiary is closed.
Martin Luther King, Jr. gave his famous "I have
a dream" speech in Washington, D.C. It was the
high point of a demonstration by 200,000 people
who demanded civil rights for AfricanAmericans.
June 11, 1963 - A patent for the first manned space capsule,
the Mercury, is issued to Maxime A. Faget, Andre J. Meyer,
Jr., Robert G. Chilton, William S. Blanchard, Jr., Alan B.
Kehlet, Jerome B. Hammack, and Caldwell C. Johnson, Jr.
Betty Friedan's provocative best-selling book,
"The Feminine Mystique," was published. The
book graphically described the frustration and
June 17, 1963 - The Supreme Court of the United States
ruled in the case of Abington School District vs. Schempp
that laws requiring the recitation of the Lord's Prayer or
13
dissatisfaction that many women felt with their
traditional roles. The book is often credited with
inspiring the modern women's rights movement
in America.
Bible verses in public schools is unconstitutional. The vote
was 8 to 1.
July 25, 1963 - The United States, Soviet Union, and Great
Britain agree to a limited nuclear test-ban treaty, barring all
nuclear testing above ground.
Peter, Paul, and Mary reached number two on the
pop record charts with "Blowin' in the Wind," a
civil rights and peace anthem. Over the next
several years, "protest music" would become
more popular in the U.S. Listeners would hear
songs dealing with important political issues that
encouraged protest against such societal evils as
racial discrimination, poverty, and war.
August 28, 1963 - The Civil Rights march on Washington,
D.C. for Jobs and Freedom culminates with Dr. Martin
Luther King's famous "I Have a Dream" speech from the
steps of the Lincoln Memorial. Over 200,000 people
participated in the march for equal rights.
August 29, 1963 - A peaceful settlement to the land dispute
between Mexico and the United States is enacted with the
signing of the Chamizal Treaty, establishing the boundary in
the El Paso Juarez Valley. The dispute, which had been
ongoing for ninety-nine years, is now commemorated by the
Chamizal National Memorial in El Paso, Texas.
Douglas Engelbart invents the mouse prototype.
Congress passed the Equal Pay Act. It said that
men and women should be paid equal wages for
equal work.
John F. Kennedy was assassinated. People in
charge of the investigation claimed Lee Harvey
Oswald was the assassin and that he acted alone.
Other people, however, claimed there was a
conspiracy (a plan by more than one person) to
kill Kennedy.
November 22, 1963 - In Dallas, Texas, during a motorcade
through downtown, President John F. Kennedy is mortally
wounded by assassin Lee Harvey Oswald. Vice President
Lyndon B. Johnson is sworn into office later that day. Two
days later, Oswald was himself killed on live national
television by Jack Ruby while being transported in police
custody.
LYNDON B. JOHNSON (Democrat) BECAME
PRESIDENT AFTER KENNEDY'S DEATH
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33.
1964
The 24th Amendment was ratified. It outlawed
poll taxes.
The IBM System/360 was a mainframe computer
system family announced by IBM in 1964 and
delivered between 1965 and 1978. Larger
computers in this family were the first to have
compatible, upgradeable software, rather than
being purpose-built.
OF
1964
January 9, 1964 - The Panama Canal incident occurs when
Panamanian mobs engage United States troops, leading to
the death of twenty-one Panama citizens and four U.S.
troops.
January 13, 1964 - Beatlemania hits the shores of the United
States with the release of I Want to Hold Your Hand, which
becomes the Liverpool group's first North American hit.
14
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed. It
banned race discrimination in voting, jobs, and in
public places. It also banned gender (sex)
discrimination by employers.
At Johnson's request, Congress created the Head
Start program for disadvantaged preschool
children. This and other programs to help the
poor were part of Johnson's War on Poverty.
The food-stamp program begins.
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was passed by
Congress. This gave Johnson power to use U.S.
combat troops in Vietnam. This came after the
North Vietnamese attacked two U.S. warships
off the coast of North Vietnam (in the Gulf of
Tonkin). The U.S. warships were escorting South
Vietnamese warships.
The Wilderness Act of 1964 directed the
Secretary of the Interior to review land in the
National Wildlife Refuge and make
recommendations to the president regarding what
should be included in the National Wilderness
Preservation System. The Secretary of
Agriculture was directed to study areas within
the National Forest System.
Khrushchev was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev as
the leader of the Soviet Union. This happened
largely because of Khrushchev's "poor"
leadership during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
The vote count in the presidential election was:
L. Johnson (Dem) 43,126,506 p.v./486 e.v. B.
Goldwater (Rep) 27,176,799 p.v./ 52 e.v.
One week later, their first U.S. album Meet the Beatles is
released.
February 25, 1964 - 1960 Olympic champion Cassius Clay
(Muhammad Ali) wins the World Heavyweight
Championship in Boxing from current champ Sonny Liston.
April 22, 1964 - The New York World's War opens in
Queens, New York on the site of the 1939 event. One of the
largest world's fairs in United States history, it was not a
sanctioned Bureau of International Exhibitions event, due to
conflict over the dates of the Seattle fair of 1962. This
world's fair would last for two seasons, and included
exhibits from eighty nations. Over 50 million visitors would
attend. Its theme structure, the Unisphere, is still present,
now seen each August outside the U.S. Tennis Open.
June 29, 1964 - An omnibus legislation in the U.S. Congress
on Civil Rights is passed. It banned discrimination in jobs,
voting and accommodations.
1964 - This year marked the end of the post-war Baby Boom
and the beginning of record photo books sales. With the
Baby Boom in the United States producing nearly 77.3
million births between 1946 and 1964, the need for
consumer goods expanded the economy over the next
decade, including the baby gift industry and other services
for families. The abundance of newborn babies and a good
economy led to companies forming to fill the demand for
photo books and albums, birthday cards and other baby gift
items. Department stores such as Sears and J.C. Penny's
expanded into suburban markets. At one time in the 1960s,
1 in nearly every 200 Americans would receive a paycheck
from Sears itself.
August 7, 1964 - The Tonkin Resolution is passed by the
United States Congress, authorizing broad powers to the
president to take action in Vietnam after North Vietnamese
boats had attacked two United States destroyers five days
earlier. (Photo above) Bombing of the Brinks Hotel by Viet
15
Cong terrorists, December 24, 1964. Photo: U.S.
Department of Defense.
November 3, 1964 - President Lyndon B. Johnson wins his
first presidential election with a victory over Barry M.
Goldwater from Arizona. Johnson extended the Democratic
victory by former running mate John F. Kennedy with a 486
to 52 thrashing of the Republican candidate in the Electoral
College and over 15 million surplus in the popular vote.
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34.
1965
The U.S. Supreme Court decision "Griswold v.
Connecticut" ended the ban on the use of
contraceptives by married couples.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed by
Congress. This law banned the use of literacy
tests to determine qualification for voting. It also
gave the federal government power to register
voters in places where blacks were denied voting
rights. This law, along with others, were part of
Johnson's program of reform called the Great
Society.
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
was signed into law by President Lyndon
Johnson. This law abolished national quotas and
substituted hemispheric caps for immigrants:
170,000 for the Eastern Hemisphere, and
120,000 for the Western, with a limit of 20,000
annually from any nation. However, there were
also provisions for immigrants whose entry was
authorized outside of numerical limits, such as
expanded categories of family members who
could enter without numerical limit. The law had
huge effects on American culture: there was a
huge surge in immigration in the last third of the
OF
1965
February 7, 1965 - President Lyndon B. Johnson orders the
continuous bombing of North Vietnam below the 20th
parallel.
March 25, 1965 - Martin Luther King speaks at a civil rights
rally on the courthouse steps of the Alabama State Capitol,
ending the Selma to Montgomery, Alabama march for
voting rights.
August 6, 1965 - The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is signed
into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Two significant
portions of the act; the outlawing of the requirement of
potential voters to take a literacy test in order to qualify
and the provision of federal registration of voters in areas
with less than 50% of all voters registered.
August 11, 1965 - The Watts race riots in Los Angeles begin
a five day siege, culminating in the death of thirty-four
people and property destruction in excess of $200 million.
October 15, 1965 - The first public burning of a draft card
occurs in protest to the Vietnam War. It is coordinated by
the anti-war group of students, National Coordinating
Committee to End the War in Vietnam.
16
20th century; the rate of Latin American and
Asian immigrants to the United States grew, and
those immigrants were also more likely to be
female and more highly skilled than previous
immigrants.
Kevlar is developed by Dupont scientist Stephanie Louise
Kwolek. She would patent the compound, used extensively
in bullet proof vests, in 1966.
http://www.americasbesthistory.com/abhtimeline1960.html
Ralph Nader, a lawyer, published "Unsafe at Any
Speed." In this best-selling book, Nader
presented a powerful critique of the U.S.
automobile industry and its products. He
suggested that they lacked interest in building
safe automobiles. Many view this book as
revitalizing the consumer rights movement in the
U.S. It provided the stimulus for the 1966
National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act,
which authorized the federal government to
legislate automobile safety standards for
American-made vehicles.
35.
1965-1966
The Medicare and Medicaid programs were
established. Medicare is a national health
insurance program for the elderly. Medicaid pays
for medical services for the poor.
1966
William H. Masters (physician) and Virginia E.
Johnson (psychologist) published their book,
"Human Sexual Response." It is considered to be
the first comprehensive clinical study of human
sexual activity. Although written in technical
terms, it became an immediate best-seller. The
popularity of this book suggested an increasing
openness and acceptance to sexuality on the part
of many Americans, and it is credited with
changing the attitudes of many people.
The National Organization for Women (NOW)
was founded in October. NOW is dedicated to
OF
1966
June 29, 1966 - United States warplanes begin their
bombing raids of Hanoi and Haiphong, North Vietnam. By
December of this year, the United States had 385,300
troops stationed in South Vietnam with sixty thousand
additional troops offshore and thirty-three thousand in
Thailand.
July 1, 1966 - Medicare, the government medical program
for citizens over the age of 65, begins.
September 9, 1966 - President Lyndon Johnson signed
legislation creating the San Juan Island National Historical
Park. The site, in Washington State, includes the location of
British and United States army camps in the 1860s when
both nations claimed ownership of the island.
October 15, 1966 - The National Historic Preservation Act
is made law. It expanded the National Register of Historic
17
establishing equal rights for all women,
particularly in employment. Among the many
issues it has addressed are childcare, violence
against women (including domestic violence),
legalized abortion and birth control, genderneutral job advertisements, and pension rights.
Although it began as a small group, it grew to
over 250,000 members (both male and female)
by the late 20th century.
36.
1965-1967
Riots broke out in black neighborhoods in cities
like Los Angeles, Newark, and Detroit. Many
blamed the riots on the Black Power Movement.
Places to include historic sites of regional, state, and local
significance.
November 8, 1966 - The first black United States Senator
in eighty-five years, Edward Brooke, is elected to
Congress. Brooke was the Republican candidate from
Massachusetts and former Attorney General of that state.
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OF
1967
January 27, 1967 - The Outer Space Treaty is signed into
force by the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet
Union, to take effect on October 10, 1967.
1965-1968
The Vietnam War escalated (grew larger). Both
communist North Vietnam and the U.S. sent
more combat troops into South Vietnam. Soon
there were over 500,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam.
June 23, 1967 - A three day summit between President
Lyndon B. Johnson and Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin,
held at Glassboro State College in New Jersey, culminates in
a mutual declaration that no crises between them would lead
to war.
July 1967 - Black riots plague U.S. cities. In Newark, New
Jersey, twenty-six are killed, fifteen hundred injured and one
thousand arrested from July 12 to 17. One week later, July
23 to 30, forty are killed, two thousand injured, and five
thousand left homeless after rioting in Detroit, known as the
12th Street Riots, decimate a black ghetto. The riots are
eventually stopped by over 12,500 Federal troopers and
National Guardsmen.
October 2, 1967 - Thurgood Marshall is sworn into office as
the first black Supreme Court Justice.
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37.
1968
Vietnamese communists began a bloody attack
called the Tet Offensive. Although the attack was
OF
1968
18
finally pushed back, Americans began to realize
that it would be very difficult, if not impossible,
to totally defeat the communists.
The My Lai massacre occurred as U.S. troops
under Lt. Calley murdered 300 civilian
Vietnamese men, women, and children. This
massacre was not reported in newspapers until
the following year. In 1971 a military court
found Calley guilty of murder.
Large anti-war demonstrations took place. Many
young men burned their draft cards in protest
against the war in Vietnam. Faced with
widespread opposition to his war policies,
Johnson decided not to seek re-election.
Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated.
Brezhnev sent the Soviet army into
Czechoslovakia and crushed the Czech attempt
to change its communist system.
Robert F. Kennedy (younger brother of former
President Kennedy) was assassinated while
campaigning for the presidential election.
The vote count in the presidential election was:
R. Nixon (Rep) 31,785,480 p.v./301 e.v. H.
Humphrey (Dem) 31,275,199 p.v./191 e.v. G.
Wallace (Am-Ind) 9,906,473 p.v./ 46 e.v. (Note:
George Wallace, formerly a Democrat, ran as an
independent because he opposed the civil-rights
laws which other Democrats like Humphrey
supported. Wallace's 46 electoral votes came
from southern states.)
January 23, 1968 - The U.S.S. Pueblo incident occurs in the
Sea of Japan when North Korea seizes the ship and its crew,
accusing it of violating its territorial waters for the purpose
of spying. They would release the prisoners on December
22, but North Korea still holds possession of the U.S.S.
Pueblo to this day.
February 13, 1968 - Ford's Theatre, the site of the
assassination of President Abraham Lincoln in 1865 in
Washington, D.C., reopens to the public. It had been
restored to its original appearance and use as a theatre, now
comprising the Ford's Theatre National Historic Site.
March 31, 1968 - President Johnson announces a slowing to
the bombing of North Vietnam, and that he would not seek
reelection as president. Peace talks would begin May 10 in
Paris; all bombing of North Korea halted October 31.
April 4, 1968 - Civil Rights leader Martin Luther King is
assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee while standing on a
motel balcony by James Earl Ray.
June 5, 1968 - Presidential candidate, the Democratic
Senator from New York, Robert F. Kennedy, is shot at a
campaign victory celebration in Los Angeles by Sirhan
Sirhan, a Jordanian, after primary victories, and dies one day
later.
November 5, 1968 - Richard M. Nixon recaptures the White
House from the Democratic party with his victory of Hubert
H. Humphrey and 3rd Party candidate George Wallace.
Nixon captures 301 Electoral College Votes to 191 for
Humphrey and 46 for Wallace.
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19
38.
1969
RICHARD M. NIXON TOOK OFFICE AS
PRESIDENT
Nixon's policy of Vietnamization began as the
U.S. started to gradually pull its forces out of
Vietnam. This process would take four years.
Meanwhile, South Vietnamese were expected to
take more responsibility for fighting the
communist Viet Cong and North Vietnam.
Two American astronauts became the first people
to land on the moon.
The National Environmental Policy Act
establishes a national policy for the environment,
and provides for the establishment of a Council
on Environmental Quality. The council assists
the president in reporting to Congress the state of
the nation's environment, and in setting policy.
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network) -- the original Internet is
developed as a project for the United States
Defense Department.
The Woodstock Music and Art Fair, the most
famous 1960s rock festival, was held in Bethel,
New York, from August 15th to 17th. Close to a
half-million young people gathered on a farm to
hear performances by some of the most famous
rock acts of the day. Although somewhat marred
by disorganization, illicit drugs, and rain, the
festival became a symbol of love, peace, and
brotherhood for "the Woodstock generation."
OF
1969
January 12, 1969 - The New York Jets win Super Bowl III
over the Baltimore Colts after a bold prediction by
quarterback Joe Namath. This is the first victory in the
National Football League for a former American Football
League team.
January 25, 1969 - Four-party Vietnam war peace talks
begin. In April, U.S. troops in the war reached its zenith at
543,400 and would begin their withdrawal on July 8.
These American Heroes have names!
July 20, 1969 - The Apollo program completes its
mission. Neil Armstrong, United States astronaut, becomes
the first man to set foot on the moon four days after launch
from Cape Canaveral. His Apollo 11 colleague, Edwin E.
Aldrin, Jr. accompanies him.
July 25, 1969 - President Richard M. Nixon announces his
new Vietnam policy, declaring the Nixon Doctrine that
expected Asian allies to care for their own military defense.
This policy, and all Vietnam war policies, would be heavily
protested throughout the remainder of the year. On
November 15, 1969, more than two hundred and fifty
thousand anti-Vietnam war demonstrators marched on
Washington, D.C. to peacefully protest the war.
November 20, 1969 - Alcatraz Island, the former prison
in San Francisco Bay, is occupied by fourteen American
Indians in a long standoff over the issues of Indian causes.
November 21, 1969 - The Internet, called Arpanet during its
initial development, is invented by the Advanced Research
Projects Agency at the U.S. Department of Defense. The
first operational packet switching network in the world was
deployed connecting the IMP at UCLA and the Stanford
Research Institute. By December 5, it included the entire
20
four node system, with the UCSB and the University of
Utah.
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39.
1970
The Clean Air Act was passed by Congress,
creating the Environmental Protection Agency,
whose initial charge was to set standards for air
pollution, as well as oversee state and local plans
for its reduction.
The Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
releases the PDP-11 series of 16-bit
minicomputers, which influenced the future
design of both microprocessors (it was designed
to be built by semi-skilled labor) and operating
systems such as UNIX and MS-DOS.
An important feminist book, "Our Bodies,
Ourselves" by the Boston Women's Health Book
Collective, was first published. The book sought
to eliminate the widespread ignorance regarding
female health issues, including that of many
medical professionals. The first edition sold
several million copies and it has been
periodically revised and updated.
Kate Millett's Columbia University Ph.D. thesis
was published with the title "Sexual Politics." In
this work, Millett combined literary analysis with
sociology and anthropology to explore how
power related to gender and sexuality. The book
helped to define the goals and many of the
strategies of the women's rights movement.
Large anti-war protests took place after Nixon
sent U.S. soldiers against communists in
Cambodia. Four student demonstrators were
OF
The 1970's - The Nation in Flux
1970
February 18, 1970 - Five members of the Chicago 7 are
convicted of crossing state lines to incite riots during the
1968 Democratic Presidential Convention in Chicago.
April 1, 1970 - For the first time, the 1970 census counted
over 200 million people living in the United States. The
13.4% increase since the last census indicated that a
203,302,031 population now called the U.S.A. home. It had
taken only fifty years to go from the first 100 million census
in 1920 to the second. Once again, the geographic center of
the United States population was in Illinois, five miles east
southeast of Mascoutah.
April 22, 1970 - The first Earth Day celebration is held with
millions of Americans participating in anti-pollution
demonstrations. These demonstrations included school
children walking to school instead of riding the bus.
May 4, 1970 - Four students from Kent State University in
Ohio were killed and nine wounded by National Guardsmen
during a protest against the Vietnam War spread into
Cambodia.
August 12, 1970 - The United States Postal Service is made
independent in a postal reform measure for the first time in
almost two centuries.
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21
killed at Kent State University by National
Guardsmen.
40.
1971
The 26th Amendment was a change to the
Constitution ratified July 5, 1971, that lowered
the voting age to 18.
"Ms." magazine first appeared as an insert in the
December issue of "New York" magazine. It was
founded by feminist leader Gloria Steinem and
others. The magazine began publishing regular
issues the following year. It was the first national
feminist magazine aimed at the general public,
not just members of feminist organizations. From
the beginning, the editors tried to provide
feminist coverage of social, political, and
legislative news and events (both national and
international), as well as articles on women's
history and fiction written by women. Over the
years, it has successfully broadened support for
women's issues and the women's rights
movement.
In the case "Roe v. Wade," Roe wanted to end
her pregnancy by abortion but was not permitted
to do so under Texas law. The Supreme Court
upheld a woman's right to abortion as falling
within the right to privacy that they had
previously ruled was protected by the 14th
Amendment.
OF
1971
January 2, 1971 - A ban on the television advertisement of
cigarettes goes into affect in the United States.
February 8, 1971 - A forty-four day raid into Laos by South
Vietnamese soldiers is begun with the aid of United States
air and artillery.
March 10, 1971 - The Senate approves a Constitutional
Amendment, the 26th, that would lower the voting age from
21 to 18. House approval came on March 23. It was ratified
by the states by June 30 and received certification by
President Richard M. Nixon on July 5.
June 30, 1971 - The United States Supreme Court upholds
the right of the New York Times and the Washington Post to
publish classified Pentagon papers about the Vietnam War,
under the articles of the First Amendment to the
Constitution. The New York Times had begun the
publication of the Pentagon papers on June 13.
September 17, 1971 - The advent of the microprocessor age
at Texas Instruments includes the introduction of the 4-bit
TMS 1000 with a calculator on the chip; on November 15,
1971, Intel released the 4-bit 4004 microprocessor
developed by Federico Faggin. It is unknown whose chip
predated the other in the laboratory environment.
October 1, 1971 - Walt Disney World opens in Orlando,
Florida, expanding the Disney empire to the east coast of the
United States.
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41.
1972
Nixon visited China and the Soviet Union in an
effort to establish friendlier relations between the
U.S. and communist nations.
The U.S. Supreme Court decision "Eisenstadt v.
Baird" allowed unmarried couples to use birth
control devices legally.
OF
1972
February 21, 1972 - The journey for peace trip of the U.S.
President to Peking, China begins. The eight day journey by
Richard M. Nixon and meetings with Mao Zedong,
unprecedented at the time, began the process for
normalization of relations with China.
The U.S. and U.S.S.R. signed the Strategic Arms
Limitation Talks (SALT I) agreement. The
nations agreed to limit production of certain
kinds of guided missiles.
March 30, 1972 - The largest attacks by North Vietnam
troops across the demilitarized zone in four years prompts
bombing raids to begin again by United States forces against
Hanoi and Haiphong on April 15, ending a four year
cessation of those raids.
On June 17th, the Watergate break-in occurred as
five men tried to steal information from the
Democratic Party, which had its offices at the
Watergate. It was later discovered that the five
men were hired by the Committee to Reelect the
President (Nixon).
May 22, 1972 - President Richard M. Nixon makes the first
trip of the U.S. President to Moscow. The week of summit
discussions would lead to a strategic arms pact, SALT I that
would be signed by Nixon and Premier Leonid Brezhnev on
May 26. On July 8, the White House would announce the
sale of American wheat to the Soviet Union.
The Equal Rights Amendment was passed by
both houses of Congress and sent to the states for
ratification. The text of the amendment,
"Equality of rights under the law shall not be
denied or abridged by the United States or by any
State on account of sex," was designed to
guarantee equal rights for women. It was
originally written by Alice Paul and first
introduced to Congress in 1923. It never became
part of the U.S. Constitution.
June 17, 1972 - The Watergate crisis begins when four men
are arrested for breaking into the Democratic National
Committee headquarters in the Watergate office building
in Washington, D.C. on the same day that Okinawa is
returned from U.S. control back to Japan.
Phyllis Schlafly becomes a prominent opponent
of the Equal Rights Amendment with the launch
of her "STOP ERA" campaign.
The Noise Control Act regulated noise pollution
at the national level by coordinating federal
research and activities in noise control and
November 7, 1972 - In one of the most lopsided races in
American Presidential election history, incumbent President
Richard M. Nixon beat his Democratic challenger George S.
McGovern, winning 520 Electoral College votes to
McGovern's 17, and taking over 60% of the popular vote.
This election, however, would be the beginning of the end
for the presidency of Richard M. Nixon, once the Watergate
affair brought question into the tactics within the election
process.
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23
authorized noise emissions standards for
products.
Nixon was re-elected. The vote count was: R.
Nixon (Rep) 47,165,234 p.v./520 e.v. G.
McGovern (Dem) 29,170 774 p.v./ 17 e.v.
42.
1973
The Vietnam War ended, at least for America. At
the Paris Peace Talks (January), North Vietnam
and the Viet Cong promised to stop their attacks
on South Vietnam and the U.S. agreed to pull its
remaining forces out of South Vietnam.
However, soon after the U.S. pulled out its troops
(March), the communists renewed their attacks
on South Vietnam.
The Energy Crisis began after Arab countries cut
oil shipments to the U.S. Arabs did this because
the U.S. sent military supplies to Israel during
the 1973 Arab-Israeli war.
Congress began its investigation of the
Watergate break-in.
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 establishes
how certain species may be considered
endangered and what protections are afforded to
ensure that they do not disappear including
protecting their natural habitats and forbidding
possession or sale of them.
OF
1973
January 22, 1973 - The United States Supreme Court rules
in Roe vs. Wade that a woman can not be prevented by a
state in having an abortion during the first six months of
pregnancy.
January 27, 1973 - Four part Vietnam peace pacts, the Paris
Peace Accords, were signed in Paris, France. The
announcement of the military draft ending also occurred on
that date. The last U.S. military troops would leave the war
zone on March 29.
January 30, 1973 - Two defendants in the Watergate breakin trial are convicted. The remaining five defendants had
pleaded guilty to the crime two weeks earlier. On April 30,
the Watergate affair widens when four members of the
Nixon administration; aides H.R. Haldeman, John D.
Ehrlichman, John W. Dean, and Attorney General Richard
Kleindienst resign under suspicion of obstructing justice.
During Senate hearings on June 25, Dean would admit that
the administration had conspired to cover up facts about the
case, leading to the refusal of the President to release tapes
concerning Watergate.
June 9, 1973 - In one of the most awesome displays of
dominance in sports history, Secretariat, wins the Belmont
Stakes by 31 lengths, winning the Triple Crown of United
States Thoroughbred Racing for the first time since 1948.
October 10, 1973 - Vice President Spiro T. Agnew resigns
amid charges of tax evasion and is replaced by the
appointment of Gerald R. Ford on October 12.
24
October 19, 1973 - The Arab Oil Embargo: Oil imports from
Arab oil-producing nations are banned to the United States
after the start of the Arab-Israeli war, creating the 1973
energy crisis. They would not resume until March 18, 1974.
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43.
1974
The Energy Supply and Environmental
Coordination Act revised the Clean Air Act and
provided authority for a limited program to
convert oil-burning power plants to coal.
The Intel 8080 microprocessor is released. It was
the second 8-bit microprocessor made by Intel,
and its design changed the way computer
systems were designed and built, making it more
efficient for computer manufacturers to use Intel
chips rather than designing and producing their
own.
Fearing impeachment on charges of obstructing
justice (in the Watergate case), Nixon resigned
on August 9th.
GERALD FORD (Republican) BECAME
PRESIDENT AFTER NIXON'S
RESIGNATION
Ford pardoned Nixon of any crimes he may have
committed while he was president.
The Safe Water Drinking Act was passed by
Congress to protect the public drinking water
supply. It sets standards for levels of both
naturally occurring and man-made contaminants
that may be present in public drinking water.
1974-1975
OF
1974
March 7, 1974 - Legislation is signed by President Nixon
creating the Big South Fork National River and Recreation
Area along the Cumberland River in Kentucky and
Tennessee.
May 4, 1974 - Expo '74, the Bureau of International
Exhibitions sanctioned special exposition was held for six
months in the Washington State city of Spokane, one of the
smaller cities to host a BIE world expo in their
history. Held on the theme "Celebrating Tomorrow's Fresh,
Clean Environment," the event capitalized on the Earth Day
sentiments of the time, and drew over 5 million visitors to
eastern Washington State.
May 7, 1974 - Impeachment hearings are begun by the
House Judiciary Committee against President Richard M.
Nixon in the Watergate affair. On July 24, the United States
Supreme Court rules that President Nixon must turn over the
sixty-four tapes of White House conversations concerning
the Watergate break-in.
July 27, 1974 - The first of three articles of impeachment
against President Richard M. Nixon is recommended in a
27-11 vote of the House Judiciary Committee, charging that
Nixon had been part of a criminal conspiracy to obstruct
justice in the Watergate affair.
August 9, 1974 - President Richard M. Nixon resigns the
office of the presidency, avoiding the impeachment process
and admitting his role in the Watergate affair. He was
25
44.
The first consumer computers, the Scelbi, Mark8, and Altair 8800, are introduced. IBM releases
a portable computer. (IBM did not release its PC
until 1981.) The Scelbi sold for $565, while the
Altair 8800 sold for $439 -- both in kit form
(requiring user assembly); assembly cost extra.
The IBM 5100 was available in 12 models, fully
assembled, ranging from $8,975 to $19,975. The
Mark-8 was sold as a set of instructions requiring
the consumer to gather their own parts.
1975
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act provides for federal control of
pesticide distribution, sale, and use. All
pesticides used in the United States must be
registered (licensed) by the EPA, to assure
proper labeling and that proper use will not cause
unreasonable harm to the environment.
Communist forces completed their conquest of
South Vietnam. The fall of the capital of South
Vietnam, Saigon, was the nadir for American
prestige. Video of people lined up at the
American embassy, crawling over the walls for
evacuation by helicopter from the roof was
especially dramatic, and seen around the world.
replaced by Vice President Gerald R. Ford, who, on
September 8, 1974, pardoned Nixon for his role. Nixon was
the first president to ever resign from office.
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OF
1975
January 1, 1975 - The Watergate cover up trials of Mitchell,
Haldeman, and Ehrlichman are completed; all are found
guilty of the charges.
January 6, 1975 - The television show Wheel of Fortune
premiers.
February 4, 1975 - Heiress Patty Hearst is kidnaped in San
Francisco. She would be recovered by FBI agents on
September 8 and subsequently indicted for bank robbery.
Hearst would be convicted of the crime two years later.
March 30, 1975 - At the railroad depot in Plains, Georgia,
his home town, former Democratic Georgia governor Jimmy
Carter opens his campaign headquarters for the 1976
presidential race.
April 29-30, 1975 - Communist forces complete their
takeover of South Vietnam, forcing the evacuation from
Saigon of civilians from the United States and the
unconditional surrender of South Vietnam.
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26
45.
1976
The first Cray supercomputer was installed at
Los Alamos National Laboratory. The Cray-1
had a speed of 160 million floating-point
operations per second (160 megaflops) and an 8
megabyte (1 million word) main memory, and
cost $8.8 million.
OF
1976
July 4, 1976 - The Bicentennial of the United States is
celebrated throughout the nation. The 200th anniversary
included Operation Sail in New York City, as well as a
Bicentennial Wagon Train that traversed the nation during
the year.
Toxic Substances Control Act authorized the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to
require testing, recording, and reporting of
information regarding chemical substances. This
law did not apply to items such as food or
medications, but other applications such as the
quantity of lead in paint.
July 20, 1976 - The Viking 1 space probe successfully
lands on Mars. It would be followed by a second unmanned
Viking II on the Utopia Plains on September 3. The first
color photos of the surface of Mars are taken on these
flights.
July 21-24, 1976 - Twenty-nine people attending an
American Legion convention in Philadelphia are killed by a
mysterious ailment, one year later discovered as a
bacterium.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
amended the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965,
regulating both household and hazardous solid
wastes from generation, through transportation,
treatment, and storage, to disposal.
November 2, 1976 - Challenger Jimmy Carter, a relatively
unknown former Democratic governor from Georgia, bests
Gerald Ford in a closely contested election. Carter received
a slight majority of the popular vote, as well as an Electoral
College victory of 297 to 240.
The vote count in the presidential election was: J.
Carter (Dem) 40,828,929 p.v./297 e.v. G. Ford
(Rep) 39,148,940 p.v./240 e.v.
November 26, 1976 - Microsoft becomes a registered
trademark, one year after its name for microcomputer
software is first mentioned by Bill Gates to Paul Allen in a
letter.
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46.
1977
JIMMY CARTER TOOK OFFICE AS
PRESIDENT
In his inaugural address Carter announced his
Human Rights Policy. He said the U.S. would
OF
1977
January 21, 1977 - The majority of Vietnam War draft
evaders, ten thousand in number, are pardoned by President
Jimmy Carter.
27
end or limit aid to any country that violated the
human rights of its citizens.
May 25, 1977 - The movie Star Wars opens and becomes
the highest grossing film at the time.
Dr. Mary Edwards Walker had her Congressional
Medal of Honor posthumously restored by
President Jimmy Carter.
August 4, 1977 - The cabinet level Energy Department is
created by Jimmy Carter.
July 13, 1977 - The New York City blackout results in
massive looting and disorderly conduct during its twentyfive hour duration.
Elvis Presley, the "King of Rock and Roll," died
at age 42 in Memphis (Tennessee) of a heart
attack induced by drug abuse. This shocked the
nation and gave many baby boomers their first
intimations of mortality.
September 21, 1977 - Fifteen nations, including the United
States and the Soviet Union, sign a nuclear-proliferation
pact, slowing the spread of nuclear weapons around the
world.
Apple Inc. releases the Apple II, the first truly
popular personal computer. Designed by Steve
Wozniak, it was very user-friendly and only
required the addition of a TV as a display
monitor. Its graphics and sound, as well as the
ability to add peripherals such as modems and
printers, revolutionized the personal computer.
47.
1978
The Panama Canal Treaty was ratified by the
Senate. It called for the return of the canal to
Panama at the end of 1999.
1978-1979
The Camp David Accords were negotiated.
Arranged by Carter, it was a peace agreement
between Egypt and Israel -- the first such
agreement between an Arab country and Israel.
1970s
Two major musical trends emerged in the U.S.:
disco music (which hit the national charts
beginning in 1976 and was further energized by
the movie "Saturday Night Fever" in 1977); and
punk rock (loud, aggressive music with hostile,
rude lyrics, which reacted angrily against the
softer rock of the early 1970s).
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OF
1978
March 3, 1978 - In one of the first articles on the subject of
human cloning, the New York Post prints an article on the
book The Cloning of Man which supposes the cloning of a
human being.
April 18, 1978 - The United States Senate votes to return the
Panama Canal back to Panama on December 31, 1999. A
treaty for the return had been signed on September 7 of the
previous year, pending approval by the U.S. Congress.
August 17, 1978 - The first balloon, Double Eagle II, to cross
the Atlantic Ocean comes to rest in Miserey, France, after
one hundred and thirty-seven hours of flight from Presque
Isle, Maine.
September 17, 1978 - The Camp David Peace Agreement
between Israel and Egypt is formulated in twelve days of
secret negotiations at the Camp David retreat of the
28
President. President Jimmy Carter witnessed the signing of
the agreement between Israeli Prime Minister Menachem
Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat at the White
House.
48.
1979
The Three Mile Island nuclear power station was
shut down after a nuclear accident. Fears of
future accidents caused many Americans to
oppose the building of more nuclear power
stations.
After a decades-long international vaccination
campaign effort, the World Health Organization
declared that smallpox (one of the world's most
dreaded diseases for hundreds of years) was
eradicated as a health hazard.
Inflation soared to 13%. The rising price of oil
was a main cause of this inflation. Meanwhile,
unemployment increased as the nation slipped
into a recession. Carter's popularity dropped as
these problems worsened.
The Iranian hostage crisis began when Iranians
seized more than 60 Americans at the U.S.
embassy. Iranians took this action because Carter
refused to return Iran's former ruler (the shah) to
Iran to stand trial. (The shah had come to
America for medical treatment.) Carter was
unable to gain the release of the hostages. This
caused his popularity to drop even more.
"Rapper's Delight," by the Sugarhill Gang,
became the first national rap record hit. Rap, a
product of the "hip-hop culture" then emerging
within New York City's South Bronx black and
October 16, 1978 - Pope John Paul II, Karol Wojtyla of
Poland, is elected Pope at Vatican City.
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1979
March 28, 1979 - An accident at the Three Mile Island
nuclear power plant in Middletown, Pennsylvania occurs
when a partial core meltdown is recorded. A tense situation
ensued for five days until the reactor was deemed under
control. It is the largest accident in U.S. nuclear power
history and considered the worst in the world until the Soviet
Chernobyl accident seven years later.
September 1, 1979 - The American Pioneer Eleven passes the
planet Saturn, becoming the first spacecraft to visit the ringed
planet, albeit at a distance of 21,000 kilometers.
October 6, 1979 - The Federal Reserve system changes its
monetary policy goals from interest rate based to a money
supply target orientation.
November 1, 1979 - The Chrysler Bailout is approved by the
federal government. A $1.5 billion loan-guarantee plan is
floated to assist the third largest car maker in the United
States.
November 4, 1979 - The Iran Hostage Crisis begins when
sixty-three Americans are among ninety hostages taken at the
American embassy in Tehran by three thousand militant
student followers of Ayatollah Khomeini, who demand that
the former shah return to Iran to stand trial.
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29
Hispanic ghetto, would become a major cultural
force among young people of all races. In the
1980s, "break dancing," "scratching," and
"rapping" would become part of a major cultural
trend influencing young people of all races and
backgrounds.
49.
OF
1980s
Michael Jackson and Madonna would emerge as
the most popular rock stars of the era. Both put
great effort not just into their music, but into the
creation of a spectacle for their concert
audiences. Jackson's album "Thriller" (1982) sold
40 million copies, the most of any album in
history, making Jackson an international
superstar and the "King of Pop." By 1991,
Madonna had 21 Top Ten hits, and had achieved
a level of success unprecedented for a woman in
the music business. Videos on MTV also played
a great part in helping them achieve public
acclaim.
1980
The vote count in the presidential election was:
R. Reagan (Rep) 43,899,248 p.v./489 e.v. J.
Carter (Dem) 36,481,435 p.v./ 49 e.v.
1980
January 4, 1980 - President Jimmy Carter announces the
embargo on sale of grain and high technology to the Soviet
Union due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
February 13, 1980 - The opening ceremonies of the 1980
Winter Olympics Games are held in Lake Placid, New York.
One of the most thrilling moments include the Miracle on
Ice when a team of U.S. amateur ice hockey players
defeated the vaunted Soviet Union professional all-star team
in the semi-final game, then won the gold medal over
Finland. U.S. speed skater Eric Heiden also concluded one
of the most amazing feats in sports history when he won all
five speed skating medals from the sprint at 500 meters to
the marathon 10,000 meter event.
April 1, 1980 - The 1980 census shows a population in the
United States of 226,542,203, an 11.4% increase since
1970. For the first time, one state had over 20 million
people living within its borders, the state of California with
23.7 million. Due to a trend of western migration, Missouri
now contained the geographic population center of the
United States, one quarter mile west of De Soto in Jefferson
County.
April 12, 1980 - The United States Olympic Committee,
responding to the request of President Jimmy Carter on
March 21, votes to withdraw its athletes from participation
in the Moscow Summer Olympic Games due to the
continued involvement of the Soviet Union in Afghanistan.
30
April 24-25, 1980 - The attempt to rescue the American
hostages held captive in the U.S. Embassy in Iran fails with
eight Americans killed and five wounded in Operation Eagle
Claw when a mid-air collision occurs.
May 18, 1980 - The Mt. St. Helens volcano, in Washington
State, erupts, killing fifty-seven people and economic
devastation to the area with losses near $3 billion. The blast
was estimated to have the power five hundred times greater
than the Hiroshima atomic bomb.
October 10, 1980 - President Carter signs legislation
establishing Boston African American National Historic
Site, which includes the oldest black church in America and
other historic sites of the Black Heritage Trail in Boston,
Massachusetts.
November 4, 1980 - Ronald Reagan, the former Republican
governor of California, beats President Jimmy Carter and
independent candidate John B. Anderson, also a Republican,
in a landslide victory, ousting the incumbent from office.
The victory in the Electoral College, 489 to 49, as well as an
8 million vote margin in the popular vote over Carter,
ensured a mandate for the new president.
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50.
1981
RONALD REAGAN TOOK OFFICE AS
PRESIDENT
Iran released American hostages only minutes
after Reagan was sworn in as president.
"Mandate for Leadership" is published by the
Heritage Foundation, a prominent conservative
think tank. It is a detailed proposal for
conservative government, with recommended
policies on subjects from agriculture to national
security. It was enormously influential during the
OF
1981
January 20, 1981 - The inauguration of Ronald Reagan as
the 40th president of the United States occurs
in Washington, D.C. It was followed by the release of the
fifty-two Americans still held hostage in Tehran. The
Iranian hostage crisis, which lasted four hundred and fortyfour days, was negotiated for the return of $8 billion in
frozen Iranian assets.
March 30, 1981 - President Ronald Reagan withstands an
assassination attempt, shot in the chest while walking to his
31
Reagan administration, and updates continue to
be published periodically.
limousine in Washington, D.C.
April 12, 1981 - The first launch of the Space Shuttle
from Cape Canaveral and the Kennedy Space Center occurs
as Columbia begins its STS-1 mission. The Space Shuttle is
the first reusable spacecraft to be flown into orbit, and it
returned to earth for a traditional touch down landing two
days later.
An assassination attempt is made on President
Ronald Reagan as he leaves a Washington, D.C.
hotel after a speech. The president and several of
his aides and Secret Service agents were
wounded by John Hinckley Jr., a mentally ill
young man who shot them with a .22-caliber
revolver before being subdued.
July 29, 1981 - Tax cut legislation proposed by President
Ronald Reagan, the largest in history, is passed by both
houses of the U.S. Congress. It would reduce taxes by $750
billion over the next five years.
Reagan announced an economic program called
"Reaganomics." He called for sharp cuts in taxes,
the ending of many government regulations on
businesses, and sharp cuts in social programs like
welfare.
August 12, 1981 - IBM introduces the IBM-PC personal
computer, the IBM 5150. It was designed by
twelve engineers and designers under Don Estridge of the
IBM Entry Systems Division. It sold for $1,565 in 1981.
The U.S. sent aid to El Salvador to help it fight
against communist rebels.
September 21, 1981 - Sandra Day O'Connor is approved
unanimously, 99-0, by the United States Senate to become
the first female Supreme Court associate justice in history.
MTV (Music TeleVision), a 24-hour cable music
video channel, began broadcasting. The first
video ever shown was the Buggles' "Video
Killed the Radio Star." Music videos became
required when marketing a song.
51.
1981-1984
Anti-communist Nicaraguans, called contras,
rebelled against the pro-communist government
of Nicaragua. Reagan called these rebels
"freedom fighters" and asked Congress to send
them aid.
1982
America slipped into a deep recession as high
interest rates reduced spending. Many factories
laid off workers as unemployment rose to 12%.
But by 1984 the recession was over and America
had an economic boom that lasted until 1989.
http://www.americasbesthistory.com/abhtimeline1980.html
OF
1982
January 8, 1982 - ATT settles its lawsuit with the U.S.
Justice Department. The agreement forced the independence
of the twenty-two regional Bell System companies in return
for expansion into the prohibited areas of data processing
and equipment sales.
March 2, 1982 - The Senate passes a bill that virtually
eliminated the practice of busing to achieve racial
integration.
May 1, 1982 - The Knoxville World's Fair opens on the
topic of energy by President Reagan. A special category
32
52.
The Court of Appeals of the Eleventh Circuit
gave a general definition of "unwelcome
conduct" in its "Henson v. City of Dundee"
ruling that an employer is liable for the conduct
of an employee's supervisor or coworker that
gives rise to a hostile work environment where
the employer knew or should have known of that
conduct. The Court wrote: "Sexual harassment
which creates a hostile or offensive environment
for members of one sex is every bit the arbitrary
barrier to sexual equality at the workplace that
racial harassment is to racial equality. Surely, a
requirement that a man or woman run a gauntlet
of sexual abuse in return for the privilege of
being allowed to work and make a living can be
as demeaning and disconcerting as the harshest
of racial epithets."
1983
U.S. troops invaded the Caribbean island nation
of Grenada and drove its communist government
from power.
Tokyo Disneyland opened in April in an eastern
suburb of Tokyo, Japan. Licensed, but not
owned, by the Walt Disney Company, Tokyo
Disneyland was the first Disney theme park to be
opened outside of the United States. Tokyo
Disneyland has become the world's most-visited
amusement park, with 22 million visitors in
2002.
More than 200 U.S. peacekeeping Marines were
killed by a terrorist bomb blast in Lebanon. Soon
after, all American troops were withdrawn.
exposition sanctioned by the Bureau of International
Exhibitions, the Knoxville event would draw over eleven
million people to the Tennessee valley over the next six
months.
November 5, 1982 - The highest unemployment rate since
1940 is recorded at 10.4%. By the end of November, over
eleven million people would be unemployed.
November 13, 1982 - The Vietnam Veterans Memorial is
dedicated in Washington, D.C., holding the names of the
more than 58,000 killed or missing in action during the
conflict.
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OF
1983
March 23, 1983 - The initial proposal to develop technology
to intercept incoming missiles, the Strategic Defense
Initiative Program, or Star Wars, is made by President
Ronald Reagan.
April 20, 1983 - President Reagan signs legislation meant to
rescue the Social Security System from bankruptcy.
June 18, 1983 - Astronaut Sally Ride becomes the first
American woman to travel into space.
October 23, 1983 - A terrorist truck bomb kills two hundred
and forty-one United States peacekeeping troops in Lebanon
at Beirut International Airport. A second bomb destroyed a
French barracks two miles away, killing forty there.
October 25, 1983 - The United States invasion of Grenada
occurs at the request of the Organization of Eastern
Caribbean States to depose the Marxist regime.
33
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53.
1984
IBM introduced the PC/AT. Marketed as a
personal computer, the PC/AT actually
revolutionized business, and led to a thriving
industry of business application software, and of
"clones."
OF
1984
February 7, 1984 - Navy Captain Bruce McCandless and
Army Lt. Colonel Robert Stewart become the first
astronauts to fly free of a spacecraft in orbit during a space
shuttle flight that began four days earlier.
Apple Computers introduced the Macintosh, a
more affordable home computer with a graphical
user interface.
Congress banned further U.S. aid to the anticommunist contras in Nicaragua. Congress did
this after learning that the CIA helped the contras
put explosive mines in Nicaraguan harbors.
May 12, 1984 - The Louisiana World Exposition of 1984
opens along the Mississippi River waterfront in New
Orleans. The event, the last world's fair held in the United
States, was plagued with financial trouble, and drew
significantly fewer visitors than predicted over the next six
months, 7.3 million, although it was regarded as the catalyst
in the recovery of the waterfront and warehouse district to
public use.
Reagan was re-elected. The vote count was: R.
Reagan (Rep) 53,428,357 p.v./525 e.v. W.
Mondale (Dem) 36,930,923 p.v./ 13 e.v.
July 12, 1984 - Democratic candidate for President, Walter
Mondale, selects Geraldine Ferraro as his Vice Presidential
running mate, the first woman chosen for that position.
In his influential book "Losing Ground:
American Social Policy 1950-1980," Charles
Murray, a conservative social science researcher,
argued that America's welfare system had failed
to meet its goals. The book set off an extensive
and heated debate. It is considered to be one of
the most important and influential books on
social policy because its arguments were taken
up by President Ronald Reagan and used as
justification for his domestic policy.
July 28, 1984 - The opening ceremony of the Los Angeles
Olympic Games is held. The games run by Peter Ueberroth,
prove a financial and U.S. success, despite a retaliatory
boycott by most allies of the Soviet Union due to the U.S.
boycott of the 1980 Moscow games.
November 6, 1984 - President Ronald Reagan wins
reelection over Democratic challenger Walter F. Mondale,
increasing his Electoral College victory since the 1980
election to a margin of 525 to 13.
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54.
1985
Bob Geldof, an Irish rock star, organized "Live
Aid," an international rock concert televised live
worldwide to help raise money for starving
OF
1985
July 13, 1985 - A famine relief concert organized by British
artist Bob Geldof and held simultaneously in London and
34
people in Africa. "We Are the World," a song
recorded by 46 major U.S. recording artists, was
released to raise money for this cause and for the
hungry in the U.S.
Philadelphia is seen in one hundred and fifty-two
countries. The seventeen hour concert raised $70 million for
relief efforts in Ethiopia and other African nations.
September 11, 1985 - Pete Rose breaks Ty Cobb's record for
most career hits in Major League Baseball history. He would
be banned from baseball in 1989 for gambling, thus making
him ineligible for election into the Baseball Hall of Fame
in Cooperstown, New York.
Rock Hudson, one of America's most popular
actors, became the first-known Hollywood
celebrity to die of AIDS-related complications.
The publicity surrounding his death brought
national attention to the disease. In the same
year, Ryan White, a 13-year-old hemophiliac,
whose case had won nationwide attention when
rock star Elton John visited him, died of AIDS
acquired through a blood transfusion.
November 19, 1985 - The first meeting in six years between
the leaders of the Soviet Union and the United States occurs
when Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan engage in a
five hour summit conference in Geneva, Switzerland.
Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet
Union. He announced a program of "glasnost" or
"openness" which gave the people greater
freedom to express their opinions. He also
announced the policy of "perestroika" or
"restructuring" which gave people greater
economic freedom. These reforms encouraged
people to demand even greater freedom.
55.
1986
In the case "Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson," a
former employee sued the vice president for
sexual harassment that had occurred over the
four-year period she had worked at the bank. The
Supreme Court held that this type of
discrimination had in fact been made illegal by
Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.
U.S. warplanes bombed targets in Libya. Reagan
ordered the attacks after reports accused Libya's
leader, Muammar Qaddafi, of supporting terrorist
attacks against Americans in Europe and the
Middle East.
November 20, 1985 - The first version of the Windows
operating system for computers is released.
December 11, 1985 - General Electric Corporation agrees to
buy RCA Corporation for $6.28 billion in the largest
corporate merger ever outside the oil industry.
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OF
1986
January 20, 1986 - Martin Luther King Day is officially
observed for the first time as a federal holiday in the United
States. Photo (Below, Right) Crowds of the Civil Rights
March in Washington, D.C. surround the Washington
Monument. August 28, 1963.
January 28, 1986 - The Challenger Space Shuttle explodes
after lift off at Cape Canaveral, Florida, killing seven
people, including Christa McAuliffe, a New Hampshire
school teacher.
May 25, 1986 - Five million people make a human chain
across the United States in the Hands Across America
35
56.
"The Oprah Winfrey Show" goes into national
syndication on 120 channels, reaching an
audience of 10 million people.
The Immigration Reform and Control Act of
1986 was signed by President Ronald Reagan.
The law was passed in order to control and deter
illegal immigration to the United States. Its
major provisions stipulate legalization of
undocumented aliens who had been continuously
unlawfully present since 1982 (amnesty),
legalization of certain agricultural workers,
sanctions for employers who knowingly hire
undocumented workers, and increased
enforcement at U.S. borders.
campaign to fight hunger and homelessness.
Colonel Oliver North arranged a deal where U.S.
arms were secretly and illegally sold to Iran and
the profits of this arms-deal were sent to the
contras in Nicaragua.
1987
Congress investigated the Iran-Contra arms deal
and charged Colonel North and others with
crimes. Although Reagan claimed he knew
nothing of the illegal arms deal, he accepted full
responsibility.
http://www.americasbesthistory.com/abhtimeline1980.html
University of Chicago professor Allan Bloom
published his controversial best-selling book,
"The Closing of the American Mind." In this
book, Bloom argued that American education
had become morally and intellectually bankrupt.
He felt that colleges and universities did not
teach students how to think critically and how to
put ideas in a historical context.
September 18, 1986 - A tentative agreement on a worldwide ban on medium-range missiles is reached between the
Soviet Union and the United States. This agreement would
not be expanded to include long-range missiles when
President Reagan refused capitulation to the demand from
Mikhail Gorbachev to limit development of the Star Wars
missile defense shield.
November 3, 1986 - The first reporting of the Iran-Contra
affair, diverting money from arm sales to Iran to fund
Nicaraguan contra rebels, begins the largest crisis in the
Reagan tenure.
OF
1987
August 12, 1987 - Near the end of hearings into the Irancontra affair, President Reagan admits to a policy that went
astray, but denied knowledge of the diversion of funds to the
contras.
October 19, 1987 - The stock market crash known as Black
Monday occurs on the New York Stock Exchange,
recording a record 22.6% drop in one day. Stock markets
around the world would mirror the crash with drops of their
own.
October 23, 1987 - The President's nominee to the Supreme
Court, Robert Bork, is rejected by the U.S. Senate, 58-42, in
the largest margin of rejection for the role in history.
December 8, 1987 - The United States and the Soviet Union
sign an agreement, the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces
Treaty, to dismantle all 1,752 U.S. and 859 Soviet missiles
in the 300-3,400 mile range.
36
December 31, 1987 - El Malpais National Monument in
New Mexico is established by legislation. It preserved a
natural volcanic area, a seventeen mile lava tube system, and
remains from the Pueblo Indian culture.
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57.
1988
The vote count in the presidential election was:
G. Bush (Rep) 48,886,097 p.v./426 e.v. M.
Dukakis (Dem) 41,809,074 p.v./111 e.v.
OF
1988
February 3, 1988 - The United States House of
Representatives rejects the request of President Reagan for
$36.25 million to fund the Nicaraguan Contras.
April 12, 1988 - The first patent for a genetically
engineered animal is issued to Harvard University
researchers Philip Leder and Timothy Stewart.
May 4, 1988 - The deadline for amnesty application by
illegal aliens is met by 1.4 million applications. It is
estimated that 71% of those who applied had entered the
United States from Mexico.
October 31, 1988 - Poverty Point National Monument in
Louisiana is established by President Ronald Reagan in
order to preserve some of the most extensive earthworks
from prehistoric times in North America.
November 8, 1988 - Vice President under Ronald Reagan,
George Herbert Walker Bush, claims victory in the
presidential election over Democratic challenger Michael S.
Dukakis, Governor of Massachusetts. The Electoral
College vote tallied 426 for Bush and 111 for Dukakis.
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58.
1989
GEORGE H.W. BUSH TOOK OFFICE AS
PRESIDENT
OF
1989
January 6, 1989 - Economic reports on the previous year
from the Labor Department indicate a growth rate of 3.8%,
37
In China, thousands of people were either killed
or arrested by government troops during a prodemocracy demonstration.
the largest in four years and an unemployment rate of 5.3%,
a low of fourteen years.
March 24, 1989 - The Exxon Valdez crashes into Bligh Reef
in Alaska's Prince William Sound, causing the largest oil
spill in American history, eleven million gallons, which
extended forty-five miles.
In Poland, Solidarity (a non-communist party)
gained power after winning the first free
elections to be held since the communists took
control after World War II.
August 9, 1989 - The Savings and Loan Bailout is approved
by Congress and signed into law by President George
Herbert Walker Bush. The total cost of the bill would
approach $400 billion over thirty years to close and merge
insolvent Savings and Loans.
Anti-communist demonstrations in
Czechoslovakia and East Germany forced the
communist rulers to resign. Unlike previous
Soviet leaders, Gorbachev did not send in Soviet
troops to crush anti-communist movements in
Eastern Europe.
August 10, 1989 - Army General Colin Powell is elevated to
the position of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff,
becoming the first African American to be nominated to that
post.
Anti-communist demonstrators tore down the
Berlin Wall. Once again, Gorbachev did not send
Soviet troops to crush the demonstration.
November 9, 1989 - The Berlin Wall, after thirty-eight years
of restricting traffic between the East and West German
sides of the city, begins to crumble when German citizens
are allowed to travel freely between East and West Germany
for the first time. One day later, the influx of crowds around
and onto the wall begin to dismantle it, thus ending its
existence.
U.S. troops invaded Panama in order to arrest the
Panamanian leader, Manuel Noriega. Bush
claimed this action was necessary because of
Noriega's dictatorial rule and drug smuggling.
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59.
1990
East and West Germany reunited into a single
German nation.
The Cold War was declared over as Western
Allies (the U.S. and other NATO members)
discussed future cooperation with the Soviet
Union and Eastern European nations.
OF
The 1990's - Prosperity as the World Turns
1990
February 7, 1990 - The Central Committee of the Soviet
Communist Party gives up its monopoly of power,
continuing the trend, since the beginning of the Berlin Wall
coming down, that the Cold War was about to end. The
ending of the Cold War was completed, in many ways, by
38
President Bush signed into law a new Clean Air
Act, usually cited as the main domestic policy
achievement of his four years in office.
the strong policies of U.S. President Ronald Reagan toward
the Soviet block. Six days later, a plan to reunite Germany
was announced.
South Africa freed Nelson Mandela, the leader of
the African National Congress. He had been
imprisoned for 27 years for leading the fight to
overthrow the white government of South Africa
and its apartheid policies. When Mandela visited
the U.S., President Bush was among those
present to greet him.
March 18, 1990 - The largest art theft in U.S. history occurs
in Boston, Massachusetts, when two thieves posing as
policemen abscond twelve paintings worth an estimated
$100-200 million from the Isabella Stewart Gardner
Museum.
A large bailout of savings and loans institutions
became necessary when it was discovered that
nearly 2,000 of them were insolvent and facing
closure as the result of bad loans and reckless
financial speculation following the bank
deregulation of the 1980s. Congress created the
Resolution Trust Corporation to administer the
bailout, which ultimately cost U.S. taxpayers
hundreds of billions of dollars. President Bush
suffered some embarrassment when it was
revealed that his son, Neil, was involved with
one of the failed banks.
April 1, 1990 - The 1990 census is conducted, counting
248,718,301, for an increase of 9.8% over the 1980 census.
This is the smallest increase in the population rate since
1940. The geographic center of the United States population
is now ten miles southeast of Steelville, Missouri.
April 24, 1990 - The Hubble Telescope is placed into orbit
by the United States Space Shuttle Discovery. One month
later, the telescope becomes operational.
June 1, 1990 - U.S. President George H.W. Bush and his
Soviet counterpart Mikhail Gorbachev sign a treaty to
eliminate chemical weapon production and begin the
destruction of each nation's current inventory.
An exhibit of the works of photographic artist
Robert Mapplethorpe generated considerable
heated discussion, as some of Mapplethorpe's
work is seen as being on the borderline between
pornography and art photography. This caused
heated political debate because the exhibition
was partially publicly funded by the National
Endowment for the Arts (NEA). The debate
caused Congress to legislate strict restrictions on
future NEA grants.
August 2, 1990 - Iraq invades its neighbor, Kuwait, setting
into motion the beginning of U.S. involvement in the Gulf
War. Four days later, the United Nations begins a global
trade embargo against Iraq. On November 29, the United
Nations passes a resolution, #678, stating that Iraq must
withdraw its forces from Kuwait by January 15, 1991 or
face military intervention. Photo above right: President
George H.W. Bush eating Thanksgiving Dinner with Gulf
War troops stationed in Saudi Arabia, November 22,
1990. Photo: Photographic Office.
The U.S. government banned all smoking on
domestic airline flights.
August 6, 1990 - Tumacacori National Monument is
enlarged and re-titled a Historical Park by legislation signed
into law by President George H.W. Bush. The site, including
39
Iraq invaded Kuwait. The U.N. asked all nations
to stop trade with Iraq. Meanwhile the U.S. sent
military forces to Saudi Arabia to protect it from
possible Iraqi attack.
The U.N. Security Council set January 15, 1991
as a deadline for Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait.
After that date, the U.N. authorized its members
to use force against Iraq. With Cold War rivalry
gone, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. were able to
cooperate in passing these U.N. resolutions.
60.
1991
The Gulf War to liberate Kuwait started on
January 16th as U.S. and other U.N. members
began air strikes against Iraq.
After only a few days of ground fighting, Iraqi
troops were forced out of much of Kuwait. On
March 3rd, Iraq and the U.N. forces signed a
cease-fire ending the Gulf War. Iraq agreed to
pull all of its remaining forces out of Kuwait.
The U.S. and the U.S.S.R. signed the Strategic
Arms Reduction Talks (START) treaty, on which
negotiations had begun in 1982. This treaty was
to reduce the two nations' strategic nuclear
arsenals to a combined total of approximately
6,000 warheads by 2001.
Faced with strikes and public demonstrations,
Gorbachev promised to support a new Soviet
constitution, which would give the 15 republics
of the U.S.S.R. more power (April 24). The
U.S.S.R. also moved further away from a strict
command economy toward a free-market
economy by allowing individuals to own
factories (July 1).
A group of hard-line communists tried to seize
control of the Soviet government. They put
Gorbachev under house arrest (August 18). They
the historic Spanish mission church of San Jose de
Tumacacori, was founded by Padre Eusebio Kino in 1691.
http://www.americasbesthistory.com/abhtimeline1990.html
OF
1991
January 12, 1991 - U.S. Congress passes a resolution
authorizing the use of force to liberate Kuwait. Operation
Desert Storm begins four days later with air strikes against
Iraq. Iraq responds by sending eight Scud missiles into
Israel.
February 27, 1991 - The Gulf War ends one day after Iraq
withdraws its forces from Kuwait and sets the oil fields on
fire. A cease fire is declared and Iraq accepts the condition
of disarmament after one hundred hours of ground fighting.
On April 3, the United Nations Security Council passes
Resolution 687, calling for the destruction and removal of
the entire Iraqi chemical and biological weapons stockpile,
plus ballistic missiles with a range greater than 150
kilometers. Iraq also agrees to withdraw its support of
international terrorism.
October 3, 1991 - The governor of Arkansas, William
Jefferson Clinton, announces his intention to seek the 1992
Democratic nomination for the Presidency of the United
States.
July 29, 1991 - Bank of Credit and Commerce International
is indicted in New York for the largest bank fraud in history.
November 27, 1991 - The United Nations Security Council
unanimously votes to adopt Resolution 721, which would
40
told the Soviet people that Gorbachev's policies
were weakening the Soviet Union. But the Soviet
army, and crowds led by Boris Yeltsin (president
of the Russian republic), refused to obey the new
communist government. Without support, the
plot failed and Gorbachev was set free.
lead the way to establishing peacekeeping forces in
Yugoslavia. Three months later, another resolution would
approve a peacekeeping force be sent.
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The Federal Reserve Board cut interest rates in
an effort to encourage economic growth and end
a recession, which had started in 1989.
The leaders of three important Soviet republics
(Russia, Ukraine, and Belorussia) decided that
their republics would secede from the U.S.S.R.
(December 7). They decided to join together in a
new union called the Commonwealth of
Independent States. This new union is a
confederation in which the republics are
independent. There is no strong central
government. The republics, however, have
promised to cooperate with each other.
The Soviet Union came to an end. Gorbachev
resigned. Meanwhile, the remaining republics of
the former U.S.S.R. joined the new
Commonwealth of Independent States.
61.
1992
President Bush's popularity dropped mainly
because his policies seemed unable to pull the
American economy out of a recession.
Euro Disneyland (later renamed Disneyland
Resort Paris) opened in April near Paris, France.
Initially criticized by Europeans as being a crass
American cultural import, Disneyland Resort
Paris later became Europe's top commercial
tourist destination, with 13.1 million visitors in
2002.
OF
1992
January 26, 1992 - The renewed nation of Russia, part of the
Soviet Union dissolved on December 26, 1991, and their
leader Boris Yeltsin announce that they will stop targeting
the cities of the United States with nuclear weapons. (Photo
bottom of page) President Bill Clinton & Russian President
Boris Yeltsin at the FDR Library in Hyde Park, New York,
10/23/1995. Photo: White House Photographic Office.
February 24, 1992 - The Salt River Bay National Historical
Park and Ecological Preserve is established through
legislation signed by President George H.W. Bush. The park
41
A civil war broke out in the former Yugoslavian
republic of Bosnia. Bosnian Serbs began a policy
of killing and torture (called "ethnic cleansing")
to drive Bosnian Muslims out of Bosnia.
in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands is the only location under
the jurisdiction of the United States where the men of
Christopher Columbus are known to have been.
Democrats nominated Bill Clinton as their
presidential candidate. He promised government
programs, which would strengthen America's
economy. He also promised, if elected, to
propose a program that would guarantee health
insurance to all Americans.
May 7, 1992 - The 27th Amendment to the Constitution is
passed two hundred and two years after its initial proposal.
It bars the United States Congress from giving itself a
midterm or retroactive pay raise. This amendment had been
originally proposed by James Madison in 1789, as part of
twelve amendments, of which ten would become the
original Bill of Rights on December 15, 1791.
In "Operation Restore Hope," President Bush
sent 25,000 U.S. troops into the African nation of
Somalia to support U.N. efforts to distribute food
to starving Somalis. These efforts were being
threatened by clashing armed groups who stole
the food before it could get to the Somali people.
August 21, 1992 - The Siege of Ruby Ridge is begun by
United States Marshals, lasting ten days. The incident would
end with the acquittal of all but one minor charge against the
Weaver family and lead to admonishment of the handling of
the incident by Federal authorities.
November 3, 1992 - In a three way race for the presidency
of the United States, Democratic candidate Bill Clinton
defeats incumbent President George H.W. Bush and
businessman H. Ross Perot of the Reform Party. Many trace
the loss of President Bush to his reneging a pledge for "no
new taxes." Clinton received only 43% of the popular vote,
but 370 Electoral votes to Bush with 37.4% and 168
Electoral College votes. Perot garnered 18.9% of the popular
vote, but no Electoral College delegates.
The vote count in the presidential election was:
B. Clinton (Dem) 43,682,624 p.v./370 e.v. G.
Bush (Rep) 38,117,331 p.v./168 e.v. R. Perot
(Ind) 19,217,213 p.v./ 0 e.v.
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62.
1993
BILL CLINTON TOOK OFFICE AS
PRESIDENT
President Clinton signed into law the Family and
Medical Leave Act, requiring employers to grant
their employees up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave
for family or medical emergencies.
OF
1993
February 26, 1993 - The World Trade Center is bombed by
Islamic terrorists when a van parked below the North Tower
of the structure explodes. Six people are killed and over one
thousand are injured.
February 28, 1993 - The fifty-one day Waco standoff begins
when the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms attempt
to arrest the Branch Davidian leader David Koresh on
42
President Clinton signed into law the Motor
Voter Registration Law, making it possible for
people to register to vote at the same time that
they obtained or renewed drivers' licenses and
auto registrations.
President Clinton appoints Janet Reno as the first
female Attorney General.
Middle Eastern terrorists exploded a bomb at the
World Trade Center's Twin Towers in New York
City. Five people were killed and more than
1,000 injured. The perpetrators were tried and
convicted, receiving sentences up to life
imprisonment.
President Clinton signed into law the Handgun
Waiting Period Law (also known as the "Brady
bill" in honor of Reagan press secretary, James
Brady, who had been confined to a wheelchair
after being seriously wounded in 1981 during an
assassination attempt against President Reagan).
The new law required a five-day waiting period
for the purchase of a handgun, with provisions
for reducing that period at such time as quick
computer checks would allow gun dealers to
determine that purchasers were not felons or
mentally ill.
federal arms violations. Four agents and five members of the
cult are killed in the raid. The siege would end on April 19
when a fire, started by the Davidians, killed seventy-five
members of the group, including the leader.
June 27, 1993 - President Bill Clinton orders a cruise missile
attack on the Iraqi intelligence headquarters in Baghdad,
responding to the attempted assassination attempt cultivated
by the Iraq Secret Service on former U.S. President George
H.W. Bush during his visit to Kuwait two months before.
November 20, 1993 - The Senate Ethics Committee
censures California Senator Alan Cranston for his
participation with Charles Keating in the Savings and Loan
scandal. The scandal had begun in the 1980s due to a wave
of mismanagement, failed speculation, and fraud within
the industry. By the end of this crisis, almost 800 savings
and loans institutions responsible for real estate, automotive,
personal and business loans in the United States had
failed. It would eventually cost the U.S. government
between $125-$150 billion to bail out the failed institutions.
November 30, 1993 - The Brady Handgun Violence
Prevention Act is signed into law by President Bill Clinton.
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Seventy-two members of the Branch Davidian
cult died when their compound near Waco, Texas
burst into flames (April 19). The fire broke out
while federal officials were forcing entry into the
compound in an effort to carry out a court order.
The cult leader, David Koresh, was accused of
storing illegal firearms and mistreating cult
members.
Heavy summer rains caused the Mississippi
River to flood millions of acres of land along its
43
banks. The flood killed several dozen people and
caused billions of dollars of damage.
Israel and the Palestinian Liberation
Organization (PLO) signed an agreement in
which the PLO promised to recognize Israel.
Israel agreed to grant Palestinians limited self
rule of Gaza and large sections of the West Bank.
The U.S. Senate ratified the North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) which called
for an end to all trade barriers (tariffs) between
the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.
President Clinton named Ruth Bader Ginsburg to
the U.S. Supreme Court. She was a U.S. federal
appeals judge who in the 1970s had won several
key gender discrimination cases. She was quickly
confirmed by the U.S. Senate, becoming the
second woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme
Court.
The U.S. armed services announced that, for the
first time, women would be allowed to
participate in military combat.
Toni Morrison, Pulitzer Prize-winning author of
"Beloved," became the first African American
woman to win the Nobel Prize for Literature.
63.
1994
A major earthquake struck just north of Los
Angeles killing 51 people and causing $20
billion in damage.
Kurt Cobain, founder of grunge rock group
Nirvana, committed suicide. This was a highly
traumatic event for young people of his
generation, comparable to the deaths of Jimi
Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and Jim Morrison in the
1970s.
OF
1994
January 1, 1994 - The North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) goes into effect, creating a free trade
zone between Canada, the United States, and Mexico.
June 12, 1994 - The bodies of Nicole Brown SImpson and
Ronald Goldman are found outside her home in Los
Angeles, California. Five days later, her husband, former
football star O.J. Simpson is arrested for the crime, but is
44
Nelson Mandela became the first black to be
elected president in South Africa's first
interracial election. This was the culminating
event in a long struggle by South African blacks
to end apartheid which whites had imposed on
them for many years. The election was also a
victory for U.S. foreign policy, which had long
demanded an end to racist policies in South
Africa.
A former federal judge, Kenneth Starr, was
selected to become the independent counsel (i.e.,
special prosecutor) investigating President and
Mrs. Clinton's role in the Whitewater
Development Corporation, an Arkansas landdevelopment venture in the Ozarks.
North Korea barred U.N. inspectors from
examining its nuclear reactors. After a tense year
of negotiations, President Clinton's emissary,
former President Jimmy Carter, persuaded the
North Koreans to suspend their program to build
a nuclear bomb.
later acquitted on October 3, 1995. The Simpson case was
one of the highest profile murder cases in the nation's
history.
September 13, 1994 - President Bill Clinton signs the
Assault Weapons Ban, which bars the use of these weapons
for ten years.
September 14, 1994 - For the first time since 1904, the
World Series of Major League Baseball is cancelled, this
time due to a player's strike begun in August by the Major
League Baseball Players Association.
October 8, 1994 - The President of the United Nations
Security Council states that Iraq must withdraw its troops
from the Kuwait border and cooperate with weapons
inspectors. Iraq had threatened in September to withdraw
their cooperation with UNSCOM inspectors, and began a
deployment of Iraqi troops near the Kuwaiti border. A
United States reaction to this development during the
months of September and October included the deployment
of its military force to Kuwait. On October 15, Iraq began to
withdraw its troops from the Kuwait region.
For the first time in the history of major league
baseball, the World Series was cancelled after a
strike by the players resulted in the second half
of the baseball season not being played.
November 8, 1994 - The Republican revolution concludes
with the midterm elections when for the first time in forty
years, the party gains control of both the Senate and the U.S.
House of Representatives.
Congress refused to enact Clinton's proposal for
universal health insurance, a plan which would
have extended health insurance to all Americans.
Hopes for major health-care reform, at least
during the first term of the Clinton presidency,
were crushed.
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The Violence against Women Act prescribed
stronger protection for women who were victims
of violent crime. It called for stronger penalties
for rapists and other perpetrators as well as
45
additional protections for their victims such as
protection orders and better training for police
and other crisis responders. This law has had a
number of positive effects; in particular, there
has been a sharp decrease in the rate of intimate
partner violence against women.
After receiving authorization from the U.N., the
U.S. prepared to invade Haiti in order to remove
the military dictatorship of General Raul Cedras
and restore the duly elected president, JeanBertrand Aristide, to power. Hours before the
invasion force was scheduled to land, the dictator
agreed to step down.
Republicans won a smashing victory in the midterm congressional elections by capturing a
majority in both the Senate and in the House of
Representatives for the first time in 40 years. The
centerpiece of the Republican House victory
appeared to be the "Contract with America," a
document that was mainly the work of House
Whip Newt Gingrich, and consisted of 10
promises to the American people.
64.
1995
The U.S. government announced that it would
cease all nuclear testing.
Black Muslim leader Louis Farrakhan called for
a "Million Man March" of black men to
Washington as a statement of assumption of
personal responsibility. Declaring support for
"the message," if not for "the messenger," many
other black leaders joined in support of this
action. Though falling short of a million
participants, the march did attract large numbers
of black men.
OF
1995
January 1, 1995 - The World Trade Organization (WTO) is
created, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT) formed from a series of post-war treaties on
trade. The World Trade Organization is more highly
structured than the previous GATT and counted seventy-six
nations among its members in 1995.
January 31, 1995 - U.S. President Bill Clinton invokes
emergency powers to extend a $20 billion loan to Mexico to
avert a financial disaster that had begun on December 19,
1994 during a planned exchange rate correction between the
Mexican peso and American dollar.
46
A bomb destroyed the Federal Building in
Oklahoma City, killing 168 people, including
several children. Timothy McVeigh and Terry
Nichols were arrested and charged with the
crime. The media reported that McVeigh and
Nichols might have committed the act in revenge
for what they claimed to be the illegal assault by
federal agents on the Branch Davidian compound
at Waco, Texas, exactly two years earlier.
Nichols was sentenced to life in prison, while
McVeigh was sentenced to death.
April 19, 1995 - Anarchists Timothy McVeigh and Terry
Nichols explode a bomb outside the Murrah Federal
Building in Oklahoma City, killing one hundred and sixtyeight people in a domestic terrorism attack.
May 11, 1995 - One hundred and seventy nations decide to
extend the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty indefinitely.
June 29, 1995 - For the first time, the Space Shuttle Atlantis
docks with the Russian space station Mir.
July 27, 1995 - The Korean War Memorial in Washington,
D.C. is dedicated in ceremonies presided by President Bill
Clinton and South Korean President Kim Yong-sam.
Leaders of the Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian
Serbs met near Dayton, Ohio and signed a U.S.
sponsored agreement ending the civil war in
Bosnia. The two sides agreed to divide Bosnia
into two sections, one part to be ruled by Bosnian
Serbs and the other to be governed by Bosnia
Muslims and Bosnian Croats. The agreement
called for the stationing of 6,000 peacekeeping
troops, one-third of which would be provided by
the U.S.
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The so-called "trial of the century" ended when
O.J. Simpson was found not guilty of the
murders of his former wife, Nicole Brown
Simpson, and her acquaintance, Ron Goldman.
65.
1996
TWA Flight 800 exploded and crashed off of
Long Island, New York, killing all 230 people on
board. Despite early reports that it might have
been an act of terrorism, a lengthy investigation
indicated that the explosion was most likely
caused by a mechanical defect within the plane.
"Gangsta rap" ("gangster rap"), a type of hip-hop
music, became a controversial cultural
phenomenon when its lyrics came under attack
OF
1996
June 25, 1996 - The Khobar Towers bombing in Khobar,
Saudi Arabia kills nineteen U.S. military personnel,
destroying the majority of a six building apartment
complex that was home to the 440th Fighter Wing. It was
carried out by Islamic terrorists seeking removal of the U.S.
presence in Saudi Arabia.
July 5, 1996 - At the Roslin Institute in Scotland, Dolly, the
sheep, becomes the first mammal to be cloned. This begins
47
for their violent tone, celebration of outlaws and
killing police officers, and hostility to women.
a rampant debate on the ethics of the procedure in animals
and the viability and morality of cloning in human beings.
Pharmaceutical companies introduced a
treatment for people afflicted with HIV which
consisted of three or more drugs used in
combination. Because HIV can mutate within the
human body, it can become resistant to a single
drug, making a combination necessary. The
combination treatment has significantly reduced
the mortality rate from HIV in industrialized
countries where the treatment is affordable.
July 19, 1996 - The Summer Olympics Games are opened
in Atlanta, Geogia by U.S. President Bill Clinton. The
games are positively known for the achievements of
American track and field athlete Michael Johnson, who
won both the 200 and 400 meter races, setting a new World
Record in the 200, and for the victory of the American
women's gymnastics team. These games would be marred,
however, by the Centennial Park bombing of Olympic
tourists on July 27, which killed one person and injured one
hundred and eleven.
After initial hesitation, Clinton signed the
historic Welfare Reform Act of 1996 which
ended Aid to Families with Dependent Children
(AFDC), a program that for 60 years had
guaranteed federal money to families which were
too poor to provide for their children. Instead, the
new welfare law called on the federal
government to give a certain amount of money to
each state to help them run their own welfare
program. To qualify for this federal money,
states would have to require able-bodied welfare
recipients to find work within 2 years. Welfare
benefits are to be limited to a five-year lifetime
maximum except in certain cases, such as severe
medical disability. The law also limited welfare
benefits to non-citizens, including legal aliens.
66.
Clinton was reelected. The vote count was: B.
Clinton (Dem) 45,628,667 p.v./379 e.v. R. Dole
(Rep) 37,869,435 p.v./159 e.v. R. Perot (Reform)
7,874,283 p.v./ 0 e.v.
1997
President Clinton named Madeleine Albright, the
U.S. ambassador to the U.N., to be secretary of
state. She became the first woman to hold this
position in the Cabinet.
November 5, 1996 - President William J. Clinton defeats
Republican Presidential candidate Bob Dole, as well as the
second run of businessman Ross Perot. Clinton gained
49.2% of the popular vote, and increased his total in the
Electoral College to 379. Dole gained 40.7% of the popular
tally and 159 in the Electoral College. Perot's influence on
this race was marginal compared to 1992, receiving only
8.4% of the vote in 1996.
December 5, 1996 - A speech by the Federal Reserve Board
Chairman Alan Greenspan suggests that irrational
exuberance may be causing the extraordinary runup of
stock prices.
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OF
1997
February 9, 1997 - The Simpsons, a ribald cartoon about a
family of misfits, becomes the longest running prime-time
cartoon television series in history, surpassing the
Flintstones.
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A verdict was reached in the civil law suit
brought against O.J. Simpson by the families of
Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron Goldman. The
families sued O.J. Simpson for the wrongful
deaths of Nicole and Ron. Based on new
evidence which had not been available in the
1995 criminal case, the civil jury found Simpson
to be at fault and ordered him to pay millions of
dollars in damages.
March 4, 1997 - Federal funding for any research into
human cloning is barred by President Bill Clinton.
May 25, 1997 - Strom Thurmond becomes the longest
serving member of the United States Senate at forty-one
years and ten months.
July 8, 1997 - The NATO alliance expands into eastern
Europe when it extends an invitation to the Czech Republic,
Hungary, and Poland to join the alliance in 1999.
A Senate committee began an investigation of
campaign fund-raising in the 1996 election. One
allegation was that illegal contributions from
China had found their way into the Democratic
Party's coffers. Counter-allegations were made
by Democrats regarding Republican fundraising
practices.
October 29, 1997 - Iraq states that it will begin to shoot
down U-2 surveillance planes used by United Nations
UNSCOM inspectors attempting to mandate Saddam
Hussein meet the provisions of surrender in the 1991 Gulf
War.
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The first cloning of a mammal took place when
Scottish researchers using cells from an adult
sheep produced a cloned sheep named "Dolly."
Timothy McVeigh was found guilty of firstdegree murder in the 1996 bombing of the
Oklahoma City federal building that killed 168
people. He was sentenced to death for his crime.
The Senate began an investigation of the Internal
Revenue Service, hearing from a number of
individuals who charged that agency with
abusing its power in the pursuit of tax revenues.
67.
OF
1998
January 26, 1998 - The Monica Lewinsky scandal begins
when U.S. President Bill Clinton denies his relationship with
the White House intern in a televised interview. This denial,
and other denials to a grand jury investigation, would lead to
the impeachment of the president.
49
February 23, 1998 - Osama bin Laden publishes his fatwa
that announced a jihad against all Jews and Crusaders. This
announcement would push forward the Islamic
fundamentalist agenda toward terrorism against western
interests.
May 18, 1998 - The United States Department of Justice and
twenty states file the anti-trust case, U.S. versus Microsoft.
On November 5, 1999, a preliminary ruling stated that
Microsoft had monopoly power.
August 7, 1998 - Attacks on two United States embassies in
Africa, in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya kills
two hundred and twenty-four and injures four thousand five
hundred. The attacks are linked to Osama Bin Laden and his
Al-Qaeda organization. On August 13, the United States
launches cruise missile strikes against Al-Qaeda camps in
Afghanistan and a suspected chemical plant in the Sudan.
September 29, 1998 - The United States Congress passes
legislation, the Iraq Liberation Act, that states the U.S.
wants to remove Saddam Hussein from power and replace it
with a democracy.
October 29, 1998 - John Glenn, thirty-six years after
becoming the first American astronaut to orbit the earth,
becomes the oldest astronaut in space at seventy-seven years
old. His role on the Space Shuttle Discovery flight tests the
effect of space travel on aging.
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68.
OF
1999
January 1, 1999 - The Euro currency is introduced as a
competitive tool to stem the power of the dollar and
maximize the economic power of the European Union
nations.
February 12, 1999 - President Bill Clinton is acquitted by
50
the U.S. Senate in the Monica Lewinsky scandal. The Senate
trial, which began January 7 and needed a 2/3 majority to
convict, ended with a 55-45 not guilty vote on the charge of
perjury and 50-50 vote on the charge of obstruction of
justice.
March 29, 1999 - The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes
above 10,000 for the first time.
May 3, 1999 - A series of tornadoes strikes Oklahoma,
including an F5 category storm that slams Oklahoma City,
killing thirty-eight. The fastest wind speed ever recorded on
earth is measured by scientists at 509 km (318 mph) during
this tornado.
November 30, 1999 - The first major mobilization of the
anti-globalization movement occurs in Seattle, Washington,
during the days before the 1999 World Trade Organization
meetings. The protests and rioting caused the cancellation of
the WTO opening ceremonies.
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69.
OF
The 2000's - The War on Terrorism
2000
April 1, 2000 - The 2000 census enumerates a population of
281,421,906, increasing 13.2% since 1990. As regions, the
South and West continued to pick up the majority of the
increase in population, moving the geographic center of U.S.
population to Phelps County, Missouri.
April 3, 2000 - The ruling in the case of the United States
versus Microsoft states that the company did violate antitrust laws by diminishing the capability of its rivals to
compete.
51
June 1, 2000 - For the first time since 1851, the United
States of America does not participate in a major World's
Fair, the Hannover 2000 World Expo, despite a record
number, 187, of international participants. President Bill
Clinton had withdrawn U.S. participation late in 1999 after
agreement to participate in 1997. Congressional apathy
toward participation in world events continues a decline in
U.S. involvement after the fall of the Soviet Union and
victory in the Cold War. A consequence of this policy has
led to a rise, among some experts, of anti-American
sentiment and a decline of U.S. influence in diplomatic
affairs. Less than half, 18.1 million, of the original
attendance estimate, 40 million, visit Hannover's event.
November 7, 2000 - George W. Bush, son of the former
President, and Vice President Al Gore hold a virtual deadheat for the presidency, with a disputed vote in Florida
holding off the naming of the winner of the Presidential
Election until the Supreme Court of the United States voted
in favor of Bush on December 12. This ruling gave Florida
to the Bush camp by a 527 vote majority and a victory in the
Electoral College, 271-266, despite gaining less popular
votes than Gore.
November 7, 2000 - Hillary Rodham Clinton wins a seat for
the United States Senate from New York. It is the first time
a former First Lady wins public office.
December 28, 2000 - Montgomery Ward, the retail giant
since its founding one hundred and twenty-eight years
before, announces its intention to cease business.
Competition from newer, low-cost retail behemoths such as
Wal-Mart lead to its demise.
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70.
OF
2001
January 6, 2001 - Certification of the Electoral College
victory of the 2000 United States Presidential election in the
52
U.S. Senate confirms George W. Bush as the victor, with
Dick Cheney as his Vice-President.
April 1, 2001 - China-U.S. incident. An American spy plane
collides with a fighter plane of China and makes an
emergency landing in Hainan, China. The U.S. crew is
detained for ten days.
April 8, 2001 - Tiger Woods becomes the first golfer to hold
all four major golf titles simultaneously by winning the
Master's tournament in Augusta, Georgia. This followed a
remarkable run in 2000 when Woods claimed victory at the
final three majors of that season; the U.S. Open, the British
Open, and the PGA Championship.
September 11, 2001 - Islamic fundamentalist terrorists
hijack four U.S. airliners and crash them into the Pentagon
and the World Trade Center in New York City. The attack
of two planes levels the World Trade Center and the crash of
one plane inflicts serious damage to the Pentagon in
Arlington, Virginia, causing nearly 3,000 deaths. The fourth
plane is heroically crashed by passengers into a Shanksville,
Pennsylvania cornfield when they learn of the plot,
preventing destruction of another structure in Washington,
D.C., supposed to be the White House or the Capitol
building. The plot is attributed to the Al-Qaeda organization
led by Osama Bin Laden.
September 18, 2001 - Anthrax attacks by mail from
Princeton, New Jersey against news and government targets
begin. Federal officials announce the first case on October 4.
October 7, 2001 - In response to the tragedy of September
11, the United States military, with participation from its
ally the United Kingdom, commence the first attack in the
War on Terrorism on the Taliban and Al-Qaeda in
Afghanistan. By November 12, the Taliban government
leaves the capital, Kabul.
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71.
OF
2002
February 8, 2002 - Amid tight security due to terrorism
concerns, the Winter Olympic Games are opened by
President George W. Bush in Salt Lake City, Utah. They
would continue without major incident until the closing
ceremony on February 24.
May 21, 2002 - The United States State Department issues
its report in the War on Terror. It states that there are seven
nations that a State-Sponsors: Iran, Iraq, Cuba, Libya, North
Korea, Sudan, and Syria.
July 5, 2002 - Continuing its pattern of the past several
years, Iraq refuses new proposals from the United Nations
concerning weapons inspections. The inspections were part
of the cease-fire agreement and terms of surrender in the
1991 Gulf War. On September 12, U.S. President George
Bush addresses the United Nations and warns the members
that Iraq presents a grave danger to the world that they must
confront, or that the United States and others will act
unitarily. On October 2, 2002, the United States Congress
passes a resolution giving the President of the U.S. the
authority to use the military forces of the country as he
thinks necessary.
November 8, 2002 - The United Nations passes Resolution
1441 in a unanimous Security Council vote. It forces
Saddam Hussein and Iraq to disarm or face serious
consequences.
November 21, 2002 - NATO invites additional members of
the former Soviet bloc to join its membership. Seven nations
are included in the invitation; Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia.
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72.
OF
2003
February 1, 2003 - A tragedy at NASA occurs when the
Space Shuttle Columbia explodes upon reentry over
Texas. All seven astronauts inside are killed.
March 19, 2003 - The War in Iraq begins with the bombing
of Baghdad after additional measures and mandates from the
United Nations and the United States coalition fail to gain
concessions or the removal of Saddam Hussein from power.
The U.S. coalition, upon failure to extract authority from the
U.N. for action due to the veto power of France, begin land
operations one day later with participation from U.S.,
British, Australian, and Polish troops.
April 9, 2003 - The U.S. coalition seizes control of Baghdad
in the Iraq conflict.
July 2, 2003 - The International Olympic Committee votes
in Prague that the Winter Olympic Games are coming back
to North America, selecting Vancouver, Canada as host of
the XXI Olympic Games in 2010.
December 13, 2003 - Saddam Hussein, former leader of
Iraq, is captured in a small bunker in Tikrit by the U.S. 4th
Infantry Division.
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73.
OF
2004
February 3, 2004 - The Central Intelligence Agency admits
that the imminent threat from weapons of mass destruction
was not present before the 2003 Iraq war began.
March 2, 2004 - Mars rover MER-B (Opportunity) confirms
to NASA that the area of their landing was once covered in
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water.
July 4, 2004 - The groundbreaking ceremony for the
Freedom Tower at Ground Zero, the former site of the
World Trade Center complex destroyed during the
September 11, 2001 attacks, occurs in New York City.
November 2, 2004 - President George W. Bush wins
reelection over Democratic Senator John Kerry from
Massachusetts. He wins 50.7% of the popular vote and 286
votes in the Electoral College.
December 26, 2004 - The southeast Asian tsunami occurs
following a 9.3 Richter scale earthquake in the Indian
Ocean. Two hundred and ninety thousand people die from
Sri Lanka to Indonesia, creating one of the greatest
humanitarian tragedies in history. A worldwide relief effort,
led by the United States and many other nations, is
mobilized to assist.
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74.
OF
2005
May 31, 2005 - After more than thirty years in suspense,
the identity of Deep Throat, the contact for reporters
Woodward and Bernstein in the uncovering of the
Watergate scandal, is revealed when W. Mark Felt, the
second in command at the CIA at the time, confirms that he
was their contact.
July 26, 2005 - In the first Space Shuttle flight since the
tragedy of 2003, Discovery goes into orbit on a mission that
returns to earth safely on August 9.
August 29, 2005 - Hurricane Katrina strikes the Gulf Coast,
inundating the city of New Orleans with water from Lake
Pontchartrain when the levees that maintain the below sea
level city break. Over one thousand three hundred people
perish from Alabama to Louisiana in one of the worst
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natural disasters to strike the United States. (Picture
Below: Damage across the Gulf Coast of the United States
after Hurricane Katrina.)
October 24, 2005 - Civil Rights activist, Rosa Parks, dies.
October 26, 2005 - The War of Terror continues. With
elections in Iraq to confirm a new constitution vying with
internal terrorism amid the U.S. military presence on
October 15, eleven days later a statement from the Iranian
President, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, calls for the destruction
of Israel and condemns the peace process.
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75.
OF
2006
February 22, 2006 - In a continuing shift of the retail
industry to new platforms, it is announced that the one
billionth song is downloaded from the internet music store,
Apple iTunes. This shift comes at the expense of many brick
and mortar chains, including Tower Records.
September 25, 2006 - In New Orleans, the Louisiana
Superdome reopens after repairs caused by Hurricane
Katrina damage. The repairs included the largest re-roofing
project in U.S. history and took thirteen months following
the destruction to the Gulf Coast region.
October 17, 2006 - The population of the United States
reaches the milestone of three hundred million, taking only
forty-two years to gain one hundred million people since the
two hundredth million person was added in 1964. At the
same time, a vibrant debate on immigration policy,
particularly illegal immigration, ensues across the nation.
November 7, 2006 - In the mid-term elections, both houses
of Congress change back to Democratic hands for the first
time since 1994. This is seen as a referendum by many on
the Iraq policy of the Bush administration as well as
57
personal Republican scandals among some House and
Senate members.
December 1, 2006 - United States manufacturing capacity
and esteem wanes, signaled by the sale of the last shares of
his General Motors stock by U.S. billionaire Kirk Kerkorian.
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76.
OF
2007
January 4, 2007 - The first female speaker of the U.S. House
of Representatives, Representative Nancy Pelosi of San
Francisco, California, is sworn into office.
January 10, 2007 - President George W. Bush announces a
troop surge of 21,500 for the war in Iraq to stem the
violence at the request of new commander General Petraeus.
This controversial policy begins to show positive signs once
fully implemented during the summer months, with a
reduction in violent attacks against coalition forces and Iraqi
civilians. Progress on the political front within the Iraqi
national government, however, does not keep pace with
positive developments on the military front.
June 2, 2007 - A terror plot to blow up JFK International
Airport in New York City is thwarted when four terrorists
are arrested and charged with its plan.
July 4, 2007 - The fifty star flag of the United States of
America becomes the longest flying flag in American
history after flying over forty-seven years.
December 13, 2007 - The Mitchell Report on the Steroids
Scandal in baseball is published. It recounted a year long
investigation into the use and abuse of performance
enhancing drugs over a two decade period, including
steroids and human growth hormone. Nearly ninety players
were named, and blame for the scandal was spread among
players, the union, and the commissioner's office. Headed by
58
former Senator George Mitchell, the report urged enhanced
testing to stem the problem and a look forward attitude to
restore the integrity of the game and its statistics. The report
comes after a season when
Barry Bonds broke the home run record of Hank Aaron
amid suspicion of steroid use.
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77.
OF
2008
July 1, 2008 - A report by the U.S. embassy in Iraq states
that 15 of the 18 goals set for the Iraqi government have
been met, largely due to the surge implemented over the
last year. The increase of 21,500 United States troops,
commonly known as the surge, reduced violence and
restored order to the nation, allowing the government of
Iraq to focus more on solving other problems needed to
establish a stable nation.
August 17, 2008 - Michael Phelps, the United States
swimmer from Baltimore, wins his 8th Gold Medal of the
Beijing Summer Olympic Games, surpassing the record of
seven won by Mark Spitz.
August 29, 2008 - John McCain chooses Sarah Palin, 1st
term Governor of Alaska, as his running mate, making the
contest between Barack Obama and himself, the first time a
presidential election included both an African-American
candidate and a woman amongst the Presidential and Vice
Presidential nominees for president among the Democratic
and Republican tickets.
October 3, 2008 - The United States Congress passes
legislation, signed by President Bush, for a $700 billion
bailout, the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act, giving
the Treasury Department authority to assist distressed Wall
Street and banking businesses of the United States due to
the housing, banking, and subprime mortgage crises caused
by excessive greed and speculation among Wall Street
59
firms. This economic distress, coupled with oil prices
above $140 per barrel during the summer, deepened the
world economic crises that had been brewing all year. The
bailout was supported by current President George W. Bush
and both presidential candidates, Barack Obama and John
McCain.
November 4, 2008 - Barack Obama, Democratic Senator
from Illinois, the land of Abraham Lincoln, wins a
landslide margin in the Electoral College, 365 to 173 in the
election for the 44th President of the USA over John
McCain, making him the first African-American president
in the history of the United States of America.
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78.
OF
2009
January 20, 2009 - Barack Obama takes the oath of office
for President of the United States, becoming the first
African-American president in the history of the nation. The
Democratic Senator from Illinois comes into the office on a
message of Change. The city of Washington, D.C. hosts
more than one million visitors to the inauguration, covering
the National Mall in a way reminiscent of the Civil Rights
March of Martin Luther King forty-six years earlier.
April 15, 2009 - After a succession of big government
spending projects beginning in the Bush administration and
expanded under President Obama, 750 grass roots Tea Party
protests spring up across the nation. More than one half
million citizens concerned with increased deficits due to
actions such as the bailout of the banking industry, car
industry, potential cap and trade legislation, and other
administration projects that project a ten trillion dollar
deficit over the next decade take part.
June 11, 2009 - The H1N1 virus, named the Swine Flu, is
deemed a global pandemic by the World Health
Organization. This is the first such designation since the
60
Hong Kong flu in 1967-1968.
October 31, 2009 - The economic recession continues to
deepen as jobless claims climb above 10.0%, reaching
10.2% with October's monthly figures. This occurs despite
efforts by the Obama administration to ramp up massive
government spending pushed by the $780 billion economic
stimulus package passed earlier in the year.
December 1, 2009 - President Obama announces a surge of
30,000 additional troops to Afghanistan to stem increased
efforts by the Taliban in the country. The surge, which was
suggested by military officers, was not popular with the
liberal base of the Democratic party which had put the
President in power on a pledge to end both Middle Eastern
wars. The war in Afghanistan, which started as a response to
the terror attacks on 9/11/2001, and the war on terror in
general, comes into focus again on December 25 when an
airliner headed for Detroit is attacked by a Muslim
extremist, 23-year-old Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, who
attempts to detonate a bomb, but fails.
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79.
OF
The 2010's - Economic Recovery
2010
January 19, 2010 - Scott Brown, a Republican reformer
from Massachusetts, stuns the nation with an upset win for
the special election Senate seat. He is the first Republican
elected to the Senate from the state since 1972 and only
Republican member of the Massachusetts Democratic
congressional delegation. His election puts a halt to the 60
seat Democratic super majority in the Senate and will
prevent President Obama and the Democratic leadership
from pushing legislation in future votes past a Republican
filibuster.
61
March 25, 2010 - The U.S. House of Representatives
finalizes the Health Care legislation approved by the Senate,
extending health benefits and insurance to most Americans.
The legislation, the Affordable Care Act, passed on a
partisan basis by the Democratic Majority, has caused a
significant rift within the public, who disapproved of the
bill, and is expected to test the Democratic Party's hold on
both houses of Congress during the mid-term elections in
November.
April 1, 2010 - The U.S. Census of 2010 is conducted,
showing a 9.7% increase from the 2000 census for a total of
308,745,538 people. The geographic center of the
population is now 2.7 miles northeast of Plato, Missouri.
April 20, 2010 - A British Petroleum deep water oil rig
explodes in the Gulf of Mexico, causing the largest oil spill
in the history of the United States, killing eleven workers,
and devastating the environment. It also severely damaged
the fishing and tourism industries of gulf states.
November 2, 2010 - With an impetus from the Tea Party
movement to restore fiscal sanity to Congress and various
state houses, Republican candidates win the majority of
elections, taking control of the U.S. House of
Representatives with a net gain of 63 seats, reducing the
majority of Democrats in the Senate, and taking over many
governorships and other legislative bodies. This tide was the
biggest turnaround in Congressional seats since 1948, and
many attribute the election to disfavor of Obama
administration spending practices, including the Health Care
legislation passed in March.
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OF
2011
April 14, 2011 - Congress votes to pass the 2010-2011
budget after six months of negotiations, including $38
62
billion in fiscal year cuts. This vote was one of the first
measures that showed the new dynamic of a U.S. House of
Representatives in Republican hands that was focused, due
to Tea Party member goals, to get the burgeoning federal
deficit under control.
May 2, 2011 - Osama Bin Laden, mastermind of the 9/11,
2001 attacks on the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and
other locations and leader of the terrorist group, Al-Queda,
is killed after ten years of pursuit by United States and
coalition forces during a raid by U.S. Navy Seals on his
hideout location in Pakistan.
July 21, 2011 - The final shuttle flight lands at the Kennedy
Space Center, signifying the end of the NASA shuttle space
program. The program, which began in 1981 and included
135 missions, was completed when the Shuttle Atlantis flew
its final mission to the International Space Station.
September 17, 2011 - The first of many Occupy Wall Street
protests begin in New York City, protesting the big money
interests on Wall Street and their relationship to the
recession and world economy.
December 15, 2011 - The war in Iraq is declared over when
President Obama orders the last combat troops to leave the
country.
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OF
2012
May 2, 2012 - At a New York auction house, the highest
payment for a work of art, the Scream by Edwin March, is
paid, costing $120 million dollars.
May 7, 2012 - The first licenses for cars without drivers is
granted in the state of Nevada to Google. Autonomous cars
were first introduced in concept during the 1939 World's
Fair in New York City in the General Motors exhibit
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Futurama by Norman Bel Geddes. By September of 2012,
three states had passed laws allowing such vehicles; Nevada,
California, and Florida.
September 11, 2012 - Terrorist attack on a consulate in the
Libyan city of Benghazi kills four Americans, including
Ambassador John C. Stevens, showing the continued fight
against Islamic extremism had not abated after the Arab
Spring uprisings in the Middle East and deposing of
dictators such as Muammar Gaddafi.
October 29, 2012 - Hurricane Sandy, taking an unusual track
up the East Coast and coming to landfall on the New Jersey
coast near Atlantic City and Long Island coasts of New
York creates significant damage to coastal towns as well as
the boroughs of Manhattan and Staten Island, to the
estimated cost of $65.6 billion. The hurricane, at its peak a
Category 2 storm, was the largest storm in recorded history
by diameter at 1,100 miles.
November 6, 2012 - President Barack Obama wins a
significant victory, 332 electoral votes to 206, for his second
term in office against Republican challenger and
businessman Mitt Romney. Congress remained status quo
with divided government as the House of Representatives
remained in Republican hands and the Senate in Democratic
hands.
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OF
2013
February 12, 2013 - Using a 3-D printer and cell cultures,
American scientists at Cornell University grow a living ear.
April 15, 2013 - Two bombs explode near the finish line of
the Boston Marathon, killing three and injuring hundreds in
a terrorism attack coordinated by two brothers associated
with radical Islam. The attack caused the shutdown of the
city as police and federal officials searched and apprehended
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the suspects within four days of the attack.
May 17, 2013 - Congressional hearings begin on the IRS
scandal of group targeting that began two years prior. The
Internal Revenue Service is accused of targeting
conservative groups for additional scrutiny in tax status
matters, including groups like the Tea Party, whose stances
include lower taxes and smaller government, plus other
patriotic and religious organizations. This breach of
protocol from a government agency where all U.S. citizens
file taxes has caused concern from both Republican,
Democrat, and independent political groups.
August 28, 2013 - One hundred thousand visitors throng to
the Lincoln Memorial and the National Mall in Washington,
D.C. for the 50th anniversary commemoration ceremony of
Martin Luther King's “I Have a Dream" speech. Speakers at
the anniversary include two former presidents; Jimmy
Carter, Bill Clinton, and current President Barack Obama,
the first African American to hold the office. Nearly
250,000 people came to the original speech in 1963.
October 1, 2013 - The Affordable Care Act, Obamacare,
begins registering people for the expanded federal
government health insurance program despite a variety of
waivers and problems in implementing the cumbersome
rules and regulations of the program. Various states have
decided to allow the federal government to run the
exchanges for them, while some states and the District of
Columbia set up their own exchanges to sell the policies.
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Publisher’s response:
New Chronology Entries: 2013
On July 18th, Detroit became the largest city in the United
States to ever file for bankruptcy protection.
2013 Fast-food workers strike: The first nationwide strike of
fast-food workers for higher wages takes place in December
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in over 100 cities around the United States. The movement
was built by a loose-knit group of labor advocates mostly
led by the Service Employees International Union, who are
pressing for an increase in the federal minimum wage,
higher wages in the industry, and the right to unionize
without management reprisals.
2014 - Colorado allows sale of pot: Colorado becomes the
first state to allow the sale, possession, and use of
recreational marijuana on January 1st. Dispensaries must be
state licensed and regulated, and sales are taxed. It can only
be smoked on private premises, with the permission of the
owners. While marijuana is still illegal at the federal level,
the federal government has said it will not interfere, so long
as the drug remains within Colorado's borders.
2014 - Ice storms in southern U.S.: Unusually cold weather
in February brought several catastrophic ice storms to the
southern U.S., causing at least 18 deaths as well as traffic
snarls, power outages, and cancelled flights.
2014 - Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia: Despite spending
over $50 billion on readying the Black Sea resort town of
Sochi for the Winter Olympics, many infrastructure
problems remain. In particular, the hotels for athletes and
media were not ready, with many sharing their problems
with lack of disabled access, no water, stuck doors, strange
toilets, etc., on social media.
2014 - BitCoin hacks: Virtual currency Bitcoin experiences
growing pains as announcements are made about the
disappearance of 850,000 bitcoins held by the Bitcoin
exchange MtGox. Tokyo-based MtGox filed for bankruptcy
in February after being hit by hackers over a period of
several years, causing a drain of Bitcoins worth almost half
a billion dollars. However, Bitcoin remains the most popular
of the virtual currencies, and is often accepted by merchants
for its public relations value.
2014 - Annexation of Crimea: Crimea was taken over by
pro-Russian forces in late February after Ukraine's president
was ousted, and declared independence from Ukraine in the
66
middle of March, after a highly suspect referendum. Its
independence was not recognized by the international
community, with the exception of Russia, with which it
signed a treaty of annexation. The annexation raised new
fears of Russian irredentism, using the defense of ethnic
Russians and Russian speakers as an excuse to regain
territory lost by the former Soviet Union's breakup.
2014 - Gravity waves detected: The first detection of gravity
waves from the universe's inflationary period was
announced in March. If confirmed, the results would explain
how the universe formed an apparent uniform structure in all
directions and a flat geometry, but with enough variation
that would lead to quantum fluctuations during inflation to
create regions of different density (and thus galaxies and
other stellar phenomena).
2014 - Flight MH370 disappears: On March 8th, Malaysia
Airlines Flight MH370 disappears en route from Kuala
Lumpur to Beijing, most likely crashing into the southern
Indian Ocean and killing all 239 people on board. The
flight's communications ended, and then the plane's
transponder stopped working, possibly before the plane went
off course.
2014 - Consumer confidence peaks: Consumer confidence
in the U.S. reached its highest level since January 2008. The
report of the Conference Board Consumer Confidence Index
is based on a monthly survey by Nielsen, a leading analytics
provider that tracks what consumers buy and watch.
2014 - Bin-Laden's son-in-law convicted: In a blow to the
military tribunal system at Guantanamo Bay, Osama binLaden's son-in-law and designated spokesperson was
charged, tried, and convicted within a year in a federal court
in Manhattan. In March, he was found guilty of providing
material support to al Qaeda and conspiring to kill
Americans.
2014 - "McCutcheon v. FEC": On April 2nd, the U.S.
Supreme Court ruled in "McCutcheon v. FEC" that there can
be no limits on the overall amount an individual can give to
67
candidates. By overturning limits on overall contributions to
federal candidates, parties, and PACs during a two-year
period, the decision enables wealthy donors to contribute to
as many candidates as they choose. This will have a
profound impact on American campaigns and electoral
politics, as those few people (only about 1,200) who
approached the aggregate contribution limit in the past were
most likely to be extremely wealthy, white, male, and from
the wealthiest areas of the country, particularly Wall Street.
Other Americans are not likely to fare as well under the
ruling: the Center for Responsive Politics reported that
"[w]omen tend to make up a larger percentage of the donor
pool when contribution amounts are limited by law." At
issue is the amount of money that is spent to influence
voting and the responsiveness of elected officials to those
who do not contribute to their campaigns.
2014 - Iran complies with nuclear deal: In mid-April, the
IAEA reported that Iran has significantly reduced its
stockpile of near bomb-grade enriched uranium and has
taken faster steps than required to comply with an interim
nuclear deal that substantially limits its capacity to make a
nuclear weapon. Iran has moved more quickly than required
to dispose of remaining stocks by mid-July, when another
round of negotiations is expected to end with a permanent
deal.
2014 - "Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action"
On April 22nd, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld by a 6-2
decision a Michigan constitutional ban on race-conscious
affirmative action programs. The case involved a challenge
to a statewide referendum, Proposal 2, which amended the
Michigan constitution. By a 58% majority, voters barred
state officials, including officials at state universities, from
discriminating against, or granting preferential treatment to,
anyone on the basis of race, ethnicity, color, sex, or national
origin. Affirmative action supporters filed a lawsuit in
federal court seeking to block enforcement of the statewide
ban on the grounds that it violated the Constitution's Equal
Protection Clause by changing the political process in a way
68
that made it more difficult for minority groups to obtain
race-based preferences in college admissions. In a stinging
dissent, Justice Sotomayor wrote "The way to stop
discrimination on the basis of race is to speak openly and
candidly on the subject of race, and to apply the Constitution
with eyes open to the unfortunate effects of centuries of
racial discrimination... [W]e ought not sit back and wish
away, rather than confront, the racial inequality that exists in
our society. It is this view that works harm, by perpetuating
the facile notion that what makes race matter is
acknowledging the simple truth that race does matter."
2014 - Shrinking American middle class: A report by the
New York Times in April noted that middle-class incomes
were substantially lower in the U.S. than in Canada, and the
gap between median income in the U.S. and in Europe was
growing narrower. It also reported that the poor in much of
Europe earn more than poor Americans. The report was
based on the results of a survey of household incomes in
about 20 countries over 35 years, taking into account
inflation, differences in taxes, government benefits, and cost
of living in different locations.
2014 - Palestinian Authority acknowledges holocaust: In
late April, Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas
took the unprecedented step of acknowledging the
Holocaust as "the most heinous crime" of the modern era.
However, peace negotiations remained out of reach, as the
Palestinian Authority, which is run by the Fatah political
party, also announced a reconciliation agreement with
Hamas, the organization that runs Gaza. Hamas does not
recognize Israel's right to exist.
2014 - U.S. economy contracts: The U.S. economy
contracted in the first quarter of 2014, with GDP shrinking
at a 2.9% annual rate. The worst performance since the
recession reflected a far slower pace of inventory
accumulation and a bigger than previously estimated trade
deficit, and was blamed on the extreme winter weather and a
drop in health-care spending.
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2014 - Heartbleed security flaw prompts policy shift: The
revelation of the "Heartbleed" internet security flaw in
OpenSSL prompted an apparent policy change by the United
States. Rather than stockpiling cyber-vulnerabilities -identifying obscure flaws in computer code which are then
used to construct "exploits" (cyber-weapons or tools used to
spy on or damage computer networks) -- the United States
will begin evaluating and revealing such threats publicly.
The evaluations will supposedly hinge on whether keeping a
particular flaw hidden will leave U.S. businesses and
networks open to attack.
2014 - "EPA v. EME Homer City Generation": On April
29th, in a 6-2 decision, the Supreme Court endorsed the
EPA's Cross-State Air Pollution Rule that seeks to limit
power-plant emissions in 28 upwind Eastern and
Midwestern states to help reduce air pollution levels in
downwind states. The regulation relies on cost-benefit
analysis rather than limiting its approach to the amount of
pollution each state emits, and falls under the so-called
Good Neighbor Provision of the Clean Air Act.
2014 - Rebels lose ground in Syrian civil war: In May,
Syrian rebels leave the last opposition-held enclaves in
Homs, ending three years of resistance in the "capital of the
revolution".
2014 - Rebels declare independence in Ukraine: Separatist
rebels in Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts have declared
themselves independent republics. The People's Republic of
Donetsk (in eastern Ukraine) declares its independence in a
highly suspect referendum. Two hours after the votes were
all allegedly counted, it requested to join the Russian
Federation.
2014 - "Town of Greece v. Galloway" On May 5th, the
Supreme Court decides 5-4 in "Town of Greece v.
Galloway" that public meetings that begin with explicitly
Christian prayers do not violate the Establishment Clause of
the 1st Amendment. This means that sectarian content is
permissible within America's longstanding tradition of
70
public invocations and official prayer; therefore putting in
jeopardy the commitment to tolerance and neutrality that
made that tradition possible. Analysts fear that the ruling
enables groups to offer tit-for-tat expressions of deeply held
but deeply opposed beliefs, as they force others to pray with
them at public meetings.
2014 - Wildfire season starts early in California: A
prolonged drought in southern California coupled with high
temperatures and winds created the perfect conditions for
wildfires. Thousands of people in San Diego County were
forced to evacuate, as fire engulfed the town of Carlsbad and
affected the Camp Pendleton military base and the San
Onofre nuclear power plant.
2014 - Fast-food workers strike again: In mid-May, fastfood workers went on strike in dozens of U.S. cities and in
locations around the world. Workers, who are some of the
most poorly paid in the service industry, want a living wage
(enough to support an adult who works full-time) and
workplace rights. The drive to unionize and to raise wages
beyond the minimum is taking place in the middle of an
international debate on the effects of income inequality.
2014 - European Union rules on "Right to be Forgotten":
The European Union Court of Justice (the EU's highest
court) ruled that people have a right to be forgotten online.
In the case, a man sued Google because personally
unflattering information from his distant past was appearing
in current searches of his name. The court agreed that
privacy was undermined by Google's current policy, and that
people should be able to request that publicly available
information such as newspaper archives and court
documents not be shown in search results (to find such
information, a searcher would have to go to the individual
sites and look for it).
2014 - Same-sex marriage survives court challenges: In
repeated blows to state bans on same-sex marriage, federal
judges in Utah, Oklahoma, Texas, Virginia, Michigan,
Idaho, Oregon, and Pennsylvania have struck down state
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efforts to protect the traditional definition of marriage as a
union of husband and wife, and in Kentucky, Tennessee, and
Ohio have invalidated state laws that prevented recognition
of same-sex marriages from other states. In addition, a state
judge in Arkansas declared that state's ban unconstitutional.
2014 - Euroskeptics win European Union vote: Euroskeptic
voters in European Union parliament voted more for rightwing, nationalist parties than ever before. MEPs from the
Front National in France, the Party for Freedom (PVV) from
the Netherlands, the Freedom Party (FPO) of Austria, the
Lega Nord from Italy, and the Vlaams Belang (Flemish
Interest) from Belgium now have a total of 38 seats out of
751. Many analysts blame the rise of proto-fascist parties on
the continuing economic crisis and on resistance to cultural
change due to immigration.
2014 - El-Sisi wins in Egypt: The defeated candidate in
Egypt's presidential election accepted defeat by the nation's
former military chief, but said turnout figures announced by
the government are not credible. Left-wing politician
Hamdeen Sabahi said there were serious violations in the
vote, but not enough to significantly change the outcome -- a
crushing victory for the retired field marshal Abdel Fattah
el-Sisi. El-Sisi took more than 92% of the vote, while Sabahi
won 2.9%, according to el-Sisi's campaign.
2014 - CDC reports a 20-year high in measles: In late May,
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported 288
cases of measles in the first five months of 2014 -- a 20-year
high. Measles had been eradicated in the U.S. in 2000; the
current increase is driven by unvaccinated people who get
measles in other countries, bring the virus back to the United
States, and spread it to others in communities where many
people are not vaccinated.
2014 - ISIS takes territory in Iraq: In early June, jihadist
militant group Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIS)
leads a Sunni coalition as it gains territory in Iraq, taking
control of Mosul (Iraq's second largest city), Baiji, Tikrit,
Ramadi, Fallujah, and advancing on the capital, Baghdad.
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Their operational presence stretches from Syria on the
Turkish border through Iraq, and includes oil fields and
refineries, a foothold for ISIS's goal of creating an Islamic
caliphate (which was declared later in the month). Their
success is more an indication of the failures of the Iraqi
government, which has pursued policies that discriminate
against minority Sunnis, than as an indication of popular
support for their extremism.
2014 - "Riley v. California": On June 25th, in the case
"Riley v. California," the Supreme Court ruled unanimously
that the police may not generally search the cell phones of
people they arrest without first getting search warrants.
Their decision, in late June, was a victory for privacy
advocates. In particular, the decision written by Chief
Justice Roberts said that "cell phones differ in both a
quantitative and a qualitative sense from other objects that
might be carried on an arrestee's person... today many of the
more than 90% of American adults who own cell phones
keep on their person a digital record of nearly every aspect
of their lives."
2014 - "Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores" On June 30th, in
the case "Burwell v Hobby Lobby Stores," the Supreme
Court ruled that "closely held" for-profit companies can hold
religious objections that exempt them from a legal
requirement that covers birth control. The requirement is
part of "Obamacare," and says that companies with 50 or
more employees must either offer a health insurance plan
that pays for contraception at no charge to the worker or pay
a fine.
2014 - Japanese re-interpret anti-war constitution: In early
July, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe pushes through
parliament a reinterpretation of the pacifist constitution. The
Japanese constitution prohibits the use of force to resolve
conflicts except in cases of self-defense. The reinterpretation
will allow "collective self-defense" -- using force to defend
allies under attack.
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Art
Statue of Liberty
Editorial
Change
Art
Iwo Jima
Memorial
Editorial
Change
Additional Project
#111
Editorial
Change
Art "Statue of Liberty" 4th paragraph revised
Original paragraph: The poem, along with the monument's
placement in New York Harbor, have made the Statue of Liberty
into a universal symbol of hope and freedom for immigrants
coming to America as well as for people seeking freedom around
the world.
Revised paragraph: The poem, along with the monument's
placement in New York Harbor, have made the Statue of Liberty
into a universal symbol of hope and freedom for immigrants
coming to America as well as for people seeking freedom around
the world. For Americans, the Statue of Liberty has become a
symbol of pride -- an icon of patriotism -- celebrating such ideals
as liberty, peace, human rights, democracy, and opportunity.
Art "Iwo Jima Memorial" 2nd paragraph revised
Original paragraph: The Iwo Jima Memorial captures Joe
Rosenthal's Pulitzer Prize winning photograph of five marines
and a navy corpsman raising the American flag on Mount
Suribachi February 23rd. Felix DeWeldon, the architect
responsible for turning Rosenthal's picture into statue form at a
cost of $850,000, completed the Iwo Jima Memorial in 1954. Of
the six flag raisers, only three survived the battle.
Revised paragraph: The Iwo Jima Memorial captures Joe
Rosenthal's Pulitzer Prize winning photograph of five marines
and a navy corpsman raising the American flag on Mount
Suribachi February 23rd. Felix DeWeldon, the architect
responsible for turning Rosenthal's picture into statue form at a
cost of $850,000, completed the Iwo Jima Memorial in 1954. It
was dedicated to all personnel of the United States Marine Corp
who have died in the defense of the United States since 1775 -and has become a source of pride and a symbol of patriotism. Of
the six flag raisers, only three survived the battle.
Additonal project #11 modified:
Original project: 11. Governments often use propaganda to
motivate people to fight for their country. Select a country that
was involved in World War II and create a piece of propaganda
(song, poster, announcement, etc.) that promotes nationalism.
Revised project:11. Governments often try to motivate their
citizens to fight for their country. Select a country that was
involved in World War II and create a song, poster,
74
announcement, etc. that promotes patriotism. Would this be
considered propaganda? Why or why not?
Ch.1-Overview
Section "The
Growth of the
Railroad" Revised
paragraph #2/last
sentence
Notable People
Original paragraph: Congress encouraged the
development of the railroad industry in the West
with federal loans and land grants. They chartered
the first transcontinental railroad in 1862 (although
not much was actually accomplished for a while
because of the Civil War). Asian immigration
increased because of the need for railway
construction workers to complete the western end of
the transcontinental railroad. Many Chinese laborers
worked on this portion of the line. The Union
Pacific Railroad (which built eastward from Omaha,
Nebraska) and the Central Pacific Railroad (which
built westward from Sacramento, California) were
joined at Promontory Point, Utah in 1869, creating
the first transcontinental railroad in the U.S.
Original: Bush, George W. (1946 --)George W.
Bush, 43rd president of the United States, is the son
of George H.W. Bush, 41st president of the United
States. He grew up in Midland, Texas, and went on
to earn a bachelor's degree at Yale University and a
master of business administration at Harvard
University. In the mid-1970s, he founded an oil and
gas exploration company in Texas, taking time off
in the late 1980s to work on his father's presidential
campaign. For five years, he served as managing
general partner of the Texas Rangers baseball
franchise, before being elected governor of Texas in
1994. He was re-elected in 1998 and then soon
began a campaign for the presidency of the United
States. In 2000, Bush was elected 43rd president of
the United States in one of the narrowest and most
controversial elections in American history.
Although he ran on a largely domestic agenda,
Bush's presidency was largely consumed by foreign
policy issues. Bush gained in popularity after the
terrorist attacks on the United States on September
Factual error
Revised paragraph: Congress encouraged the development of the
railroad industry in the West with federal loans and land grants.
They chartered the first transcontinental railroad in 1862
(although not much was actually accomplished for a while
because of the Civil War). Asian immigration increased because
of the need for railway construction workers to complete the
western end of the transcontinental railroad. Many Chinese
laborers worked on this portion of the line. The Union Pacific
Railroad (which built eastward from Sacramento, California) and
the Central Pacific Railroad (which built westward from Omaha,
Nebraska) were joined at Promontory Point, Utah in 1869,
creating the first transcontinental railroad in the U.S.
Editorial
Change
Modified bio for George W. Bush Revised:Bush, George W.
(1946 --)George W. Bush, 43rd president of the United States, is
the son of George H.W. Bush, 41st president of the United
States. He grew up in Midland, Texas, and went on to earn a
bachelor's degree at Yale University and a master of business
administration at Harvard University. In the mid-1970s, he
founded an oil and gas exploration company in Texas, taking
time off in the late 1980s to work on his father's presidential
campaign. For five years, he served as managing general partner
of the Texas Rangers baseball franchise, before being elected
governor of Texas in 1994. He was re-elected in 1998 and then
soon began a campaign for the presidency of the United States. In
2000, Bush was elected 43rd president of the United States in one
of the narrowest and most controversial elections in American
history. Although he ran on a largely domestic agenda, Bush's
presidency was largely consumed by foreign policy issues. Bush
gained in popularity after the terrorist attacks on the United
States on September 11, 2001. Many Americans felt that he
showed strong leadership through America's response to the
attacks. This response included taking steps to oust the
75
Notable People
11, 2001. Many Americans felt that he showed
strong leadership through America's response to the
attacks. This response included taking steps to oust
the Taliban government of Afghanistan, which had
sheltered terrorist training camps and Osama bin
Laden, the leader of the terrorist group (al Qaeda)
thought to be responsible for the September 11th
attacks. In 2003, President Bush convinced the
United Nations to adopt a strong resolution
requiring Iraq to disarm and advocated a war on Iraq
for its failure to comply. Despite opposition from
many major European nations, he ordered an attack
on Iraq in March 2003. The 2004 election was
considered by many to be a referendum on the war
in Iraq, with Bush's opponent referring to it as "the
wrong war in the wrong place at the wrong time."
Although Bush won re-election, the continuing
casualties and perceived lack of progress led to low
approval ratings during his second term in office. In
2009, he was succeeded by Barack Obama.
Modified bio for Katie Couric--Modified 5th & last
2 sentences
Original:Couric, Katie (1957 --)Katie Couric was
the first woman to solo anchor a network evening
news program. She began her national on-screen
career as a Deputy Pentagon Correspondent for
NBC News, with occasional stints as a guest anchor
on the "Today" show. Eventually she became a
permanent anchor on the "Today" show. In 2006,
CBS hired Couric away from NBC to anchor the
CBS "Evening News" program. Couric also
contributes to CBS's "60 Minutes" weekly
investigative news program. When hired, Couric
was the most highly paid news anchor in history.
Over the course of her career she has won multiple
Emmys, an Associated Press award, a Peabody
Award, and the Edward R. Murrow Award for best
newscast. Famous for being a tough interviewer, one
of her best-known was a (2008) multi-part interview
with then vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin,
Taliban government of Afghanistan, which had sheltered terrorist
training camps and Osama bin Laden, the leader of the
terrorist group (al Qaeda) thought to be responsible for the
September 11th attacks. In 2003, President Bush convinced
the United Nations to adopt a strong resolution requiring Iraq to
disarm and advocated a war on Iraq for its failure to
comply. Despite opposition from many major European nations,
he ordered an attack on Iraq in March 2003. The 2004
election was considered by many to be a referendum on the war
in Iraq, with Bush's opponent referring to it as "the
wrong war in the wrong place at the wrong time." Although Bush
won re-election, the continuing casualties and
perceived lack of progress led to low approval ratings during his
second term in office. These tended to overshadow his
accomplishments in counterterrorism, educational reform, the
establishment of a Medicare prescription drug program, and his
AIDS relief program. In 2009, he was succeeded by Barack
Obama.
Editorial
Change
Revised: Couric, Katie (1957 --)Katie Couric was the first
woman to solo anchor a network evening news program. She
began her national on-screen career as a Deputy Pentagon
Correspondent for NBC News, with occasional stints as a guest
anchor on the "Today" show. Eventually she became a permanent
anchor on the "Today" show. In 2006, CBS hired Couric away
from NBC to anchor the CBS "Evening News" program. Couric
also contributed to CBS's "60 Minutes" weekly investigative
news program. When hired, Couric was the most highly paid
news anchor in history. Over the course of her career she has
won multiple Emmys, an Associated Press award, a Peabody
Award, and the Edward R. Murrow Award for best newscast.
Famous for being a tough interviewer, one of her best-known
was a (2008) multi-part interview with then vice-presidential
candidate Sarah Palin, which many people believe (negatively)
changed the public's perception of Governor Palin. In 2011, she
moved to ABC where she hosted a daytime talk show from 2012
to 2014. She is presently a global news anchor for Yahoo News
in partnership with ABC News.
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Notable People
which many people believe (negatively) changed the
public's perception of Governor Palin. In 2011 she
moved to ABC where she presently hosts a daytime
talk show.
Current bio: Gates, William H. "Bill," III (1955 --)
Born in Seattle, Washington, Bill Gates wrote his
first computer program at age 13. He continued to
show a precocious ability with computers in high
school. He was one of a group of students who
wrote a payroll system for the school. As a Harvard
University undergraduate, he and Paul Allen
adapted the mainframe programming language
BASIC for the first microcomputers in 1975. Gates
dropped out of Harvard and Allen quit his job to
found a new company, Microsoft, to develop and
sell microcomputer software. In 1980, IBM chose
Microsoft's MS-DOS as the operating system for its
first microcomputers, which were very successful.
MS-DOS was followed by the Windows operating
system, which had a graphical user interface.
Microsoft today is the world's dominant developer
and marketer of computer systems and applications,
particularly operating systems and office suite
packages. Gates became one of the richest men in
the world, with $75 billion in personal assets by
1999. Some people view him favorably as a
successful business owner, while others feel that
Microsoft has used unfair marketing tactics to attain
and keep its prominence. In 1998, the Justice
Department charged Microsoft with violations of the
Sherman Antitrust Act. In November 2001,
Microsoft and the government reached a settlement.
Gates, through his eponymous foundation, is the
world's largest philanthropist. In 2005, the Gates
Foundation had over $29 billion in assets and had
distributed over $10 billion in areas including
tuberculosis, AIDS, childhood nutrition, the
development of small high schools and higher
education. In 2005, Gates was granted an honorary
knighthood by the Queen of England for his
Editorial
Change
Modified bio for Bill Gates--Added last 2 sentences: "In 2008,
Gates started transitioning from full-time work at Microsoft to
full-time work at the Gates Foundation. In 2014 he stepped down
as Chairman of Microsoft, assuming a position as technology
advisor."
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Notable People
Notable People
philanthropic work. In 2008, Gates started
transitioning from full-time work at Microsoft to
full-time work at the Gates Foundation. In 2014 he
stepped down as Chairman of Microsoft, assuming a
position as technology advisor.
Current bio:Milk, Harvey (1930-1978)Harvey Milk
was among the first openly gay elected officials in
the United States. Originally from Woodmere, New
York, and educated at the New York College for
Teachers (now the State University of New York at
Albany), Milk served in the U.S. Navy during the
Korean War and then drifted from job to job and
place to place before settling in San Francisco and
opening a camera shop. As a small business owner,
Milk became angered by the treatment individuals
and small businesses received from the city
government, which protected the interests of large
corporations. A charismatic speaker, he was moved
to become active in civic associations and politics,
becoming known in his neighborhood as the "Mayor
of Castro Street." He served as an appointed official
on the Board of Permit Appeals and eventually won
a position in 1977 on the Board of Supervisors (San
Francisco's city council), campaigning on individual
freedom, the promotion of small business, and
quality-of-life issues. But Milk's major impact was
in openly campaigning for civil rights for gays and
lesbians, at a time when many states and cities had
and enforced criminal laws against them. He urged
gays and lesbians to be visible in public life, and to
openly fight discrimination wherever it was found.
Milk and Mayor George Moscone were assassinated
in 1978 by a disgruntled former city supervisor, Dan
White. A sympathetic jury found White guilty of
voluntary manslaughter, a verdict that prompted
rioting in San Francisco.
Current bio: Kerry, John F. (1943 --)After he
graduated from Yale University in 1966 with a
degree in political science, Kerry volunteered for the
navy (1966-1970), became a lieutenant, and served
Editorial
Change
Modified bio for Harvey Milk--Modified 1st sentence by
changing "Milk was the first" to "Milk was among the first"
Editorial
Change
Modified bio for John Kerry--Added the last sentence "As
Secretary of State, he has been deeply involved in Middle East
affairs."
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Notable People
in Vietnam. Kerry's military experience reinforced
his early anti-war opinions, and once back in the
U.S., he was the first Vietnam War veteran to testify
before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in
April 1971. Kerry became a prominent leader and
spokesperson of the anti-war movement. After being
defeated in a bid for a congressional seat in 1972,
Kerry entered Boston College Law School. After
graduation in 1976, he worked as a prosecutor in
Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and then in a
private law firm. In 1982, he was elected lieutenant
governor of the state along with Michael Dukakis as
governor. In 1984, he won election to the U.S.
Senate and has continued to win re-election since,
serving to 2013 when he resigned to become
Secretary of State. In 2003-2004, Kerry sought and
obtained the Democratic presidential nomination,
then ran against incumbent George W. Bush. In a
close-fought campaign that ended in a cliff-hanger
election, Kerry narrowly lost with 48% of the
popular vote and 252 electoral votes to Bush's 51%
(popular vote) and 286 electoral votes. As Secretary
of State, he has been deeply involved in Middle East
affairs.
Original:Murdoch, Rupert (1931 --) Born in
Melbourne, Australia, to Australian gentry, Rupert
Murdoch was educated at Oxford and returned to
Australia to manage the family's holdings on the
death of his father. Murdoch's media empire has
grown to include newspaper, film, television,
Internet, and radio holdings in Great Britain and
America. Some of the more well-known outlets
owned by Murdoch's News Corporation are BSkyB
(British satellite television), Twentieth Century Fox,
the New York Post, MySpace.com, and the Fox
News Network. Not only is News Corp. unique
among multinational media companies in being
family owned and controlled, but the sheer scope of
its holdings have generated much concern about
reporting bias and vulgarity. Murdoch's influence
Editorial
Change
Modified bio for Rupert Murdoch--modified 3rd & last sentence
Revised:Murdoch, Rupert (1931 --) Born in Melbourne,
Australia, to Australian gentry, Rupert Murdoch was educated at
Oxford and returned to Australia to manage the family's holdings
on the death of his father. Murdoch's media empire has grown to
include newspaper, film, television, Internet, and radio holdings
in Great Britain and America. Some of the more well-known
outlets owned by Murdoch's News Corporation (or 21st Century
Fox, a company spun off from News Corp. in 2013 that Murdoch
also controls) are BSkyB (British satellite television), Twentieth
Century Fox, the New York Post, MySpace.com, and the Fox
News Network. Not only is News Corp. unique among
multinational media companies in being family owned and
controlled, but the sheer scope of its holdings have generated
much concern about reporting bias and vulgarity. Murdoch's
79
has also grown politically, as he and his company
generally favor the Republican Party's policies and
candidates in the U.S.
Notable People
Notable People
Current bio: Palin, Sarah L. (1964 --)Palin was the
governor of Alaska, and the Republican candidate
for vice-president in 2008. Born in Idaho and raised
in Alaska, Palin was a runner-up in the Miss Alaska
contest before she graduated from the University of
Idaho and became a TV sports reporter in
Anchorage. Her first elected position was on the
Wasilla city council, running on a platform of no tax
hikes. She became mayor of Wasilla (pop. 10,000)
in 1996, ran for lieutenant governor in 2002, and
was appointed to the state's Oil and Gas
Conservation Commission in 2003. However, she
resigned that position in 2004 in protest against the
lack of ethics in statewide politicians. She was
elected the first female governor of Alaska in 2006.
McCain picked her as his vice-presidential
candidate in August 2008, but she faced withering
criticism about her lack of preparation for the job,
including her lack of knowledge about international
relations. She abruptly announced her departure
from the governor's office in July 2009, with more
than a year left in her term. In November 2009 Palin
released her autobiography, "Going Rogue: An
American Life," which became a best seller. Palin
remains active in national politics and broadcasting.
Current bio Winfrey, Oprah (1954 --)Winfrey, the
"queen of daytime television," is a self-made
billionaire TV host and actress from rural
Mississippi who has America's No. 1 talk show,
with 48 million viewers a week. Winfrey was born
to unwed teenage parents and lived with her
grandmother in rural Mississippi until she was six;
she then went to live with her mother. This was a
painful period in Winfrey's life, as she suffered
sexual abuse from relatives, and later a teenage
pregnancy of her own. (Her son died in infancy.) At
influence has also grown politically, as he and his companies
generally favor the Republican Party's policies and candidates in
the U.S.
Editorial
Change
Modified bio for Sarah Palin--Added last sentence. "Palin
remains active in national politics and broadcasting."
Editorial
Change
Modified bio for Oprah Winfrey--Added last sentence " In 2013,
she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom."
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the age of 14, she was sent to live with her father,
and began to excel in school; she also began
working as a news broadcaster for a local radio
station. She won a full scholarship to Tennessee
State University, where she studied communication.
After college, Winfrey worked her way through
local television broadcasting in Nashville and
Baltimore before moving to the lucrative Chicago
market, where the talk show she began to host in
1984 quickly became a hit that went to national
syndication. Winfrey's show blends advice,
compassion, support, and broadly inclusive
spirituality, where other daytime talk shows tend to
emphasize sensationalism, and has highlighted the
importance of consumers using their purchasing
power to work for social and political change. Her
influence extends far beyond television to her
magazines and online sites: her book club's picks
become instant bestsellers, and her political support
can help win presidential campaigns. She ended her
talk show in 2011, after 25 seasons. In 2013, she
was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Documents
Editorial
Change
New Document: "Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg County
Board of Education"
More than a decade after the Supreme Court's decision in 1954 in
Brown v. Board of Education ended de jure segregation; public
schools in America were de facto still largely segregated. The
Charlotte-Mecklenburg, North Carolina, school system was
typical: of the more than 84,000 students in 107 schools in the
1968-1969 school year, only 29% (24,000) of the pupils were
black. However, 14,000 of these black students attended 21
schools that were at least 99% black. While the constitutional
mandate to desegregate did not require all schools in a district to
reflect exactly the district’s racial composition, the federal
district court required school authorities to come up with a plan
that would erase the effects of state-imposed segregation. A
series of plans from multiple sources including court-appointed
experts were formulated, and the final plan that the judge
accepted required busing a much larger number of elementary
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school students than other plans, to which the school board
objected.
The school district and the plaintiffs appealed the case to the U.S.
Supreme Court, asking them to rule on the main questions of the
duties of school authorities to combat the effects of residential
segregation, and the constitutional authorization of federal courts
to oversee and produce remedies for state-imposed segregation.
The Court held unanimously that the 14th Amendment gave
district courts broad powers to remedy past wrongs, and that
school district authorities had to eliminate racial distinctions in
faculty, staff, transportation, facilities, and extracurricular
activities. The use of busing to achieve the goal of integration
was an especially controversial decision, as southern states had
previously forced black students to be bused extremely long
distances in order to attend black schools -- making white
students take buses out of district was seen as retribution.
The result of the decision was a school system that excelled, and
was a tremendous source of local pride -- students from
Charlotte-Mecklenburg even invited observers from the school
system in Boston to see how integration should be done.
However, in 2002, the decision was abrogated. The plaintiffs in
Belk v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education charged that
the school system had become desegregated and that remedial
techniques to combat residential segregation such as busing and
racial quotas had thus been rendered unnecessary. A federal court
of appeals agreed with the plaintiffs. When the ruling was
challenged, the Supreme Court refused to hear the case and
thereby upheld the lower court's ruling. This allowed the school
district to resume assigning students to schools in their
neighborhood -- in effect re-segregating the CharlotteMecklenburg schools and causing a precipitous decline in overall
quality.
Questions:
1. What was the Supreme Court’s decision on the district courts’
powers?
2. What were the main points of the Board Plan? of the Finger
Plan?
3. What were the criteria by which the Supreme Court ruled
desegregation plans would be judged by?
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New Chronology
Editorial
Change
New Chronology entry: "1866"14th Amendment to U.S.
Constitution proposed - This amendment defined citizenship and
for the first time, guaranteed citizenship for African-Americans
by stipulating that anyone born in the United States or naturalized
as a citizen was entitled to the same rights and privileges. The
Federal Government was given power to protect the rights of all
citizens from arbitrary actions of the states. Ratification was
completed on July 9th.
New Chronology entry: "1869"U.S. Congress proposed the 15th
Amendment - The 15th Amendment would forbid states from
depriving citizens of the right to vote because of race, color, or
previous condition of servitude. Ratification was completed on
February 3, 1870.
Tutorial
Editorial
Change
New Chronology entry: "1913"Henry Ford (American) installs
the assembly line for mass production of the Model T car. The
following year, Ford gave his workers a large raise as part of a
publicity move to introduce the assembly line to Americans.
Changed name of "The War on Terror" to "The U.S. War on
Terror" and modified sections:
> Introduction: 1st paragraph/last sentence and 2nd paragraph/1st
sentence modified
> September 11, 2001: 2nd paragraph, added 2nd to last sentence
"In 2000, they conducted a suicide bomb attack on the destroyer
U.S.S. Cole in the Yemeni port of Aden."
> Afghanistan: 2nd paragraph/2nd sentence modified
> Iraq: 2nd paragraph, added to the end "(In the decade to....was
ongoing.)"
> Iran: 4th paragraph, last sentence was modified
> Policy Changes: 1st paragraph modified & split into 2
paragraphs / name of present Secretary of Homeland Security
was updated.**See changes below:
Introduction
There has been much disagreement, especially in recent years,
about what acts are considered to be acts of terrorism. The saying
that "one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter" refers
to the fact that acts of violence by small groups may be perceived
differently depending on the identity of the individuals
83
responsible and their purpose in carrying out acts of violence.
However, one commonly accepted definition is that acts of
terrorism are acts of violence specifically designed to cause fear.
Although the U.S. had experience with terrorism for a number of
years, the most defining moment is often considered to be the
attacks on September 11, 2001. In a single day, almost 3,000
Americans lost their lives, and an American landmark was
reduced to rubble. These attacks inspired a new foreign policy
focused on eliminating global terrorism by targeting both the
individuals responsible, as well as the national governments that
offered those individuals aid and protection. This new approach
dictated much of U.S. government policy in the early 21st
century -- both foreign and domestic. In this tutorial, you will
have an opportunity to examine the origins of the American
"Global War on Terror." You will be introduced to how the
events on September 11th spurred American determination to
address the issue of terrorism that led to conflict both at home
and across the globe.
September 11th, 2001
While U.S. history is filled with critical events that impact many
Americans on an almost daily basis, from time to time an
occurrence is so monumental that it can literally define a
generation's historical experience. Millions of Americans can
recall where they were and what they were doing when they
heard the news that President John F. Kennedy had been
assassinated. The events of September 11th would find
themselves imprinted in many memories the same way. On that
Tuesday morning, as many people were on their way to work, 19
terrorists participated in the hijacking of four commercial
airplanes. Two of those airplanes were flown into the World
Trade Center Twin Towers in New York City. One of the
airplanes was flown into the Pentagon building in Washington,
D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field in Pennsylvania after
the passengers wrestled control from the hijackers. All told,
almost 3,000 people died because of the attacks on September
11th.
The attacks were orchestrated by members of the organization
called al Qaeda, headed by a man named Osama bin Laden. Bin
Laden had a long career of involvement in militant Islamic
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groups dating back to his joining the mujahideen (freedom
fighters) in their efforts to drive Soviet forces out of Afghanistan.
After years of bitter conflict, the Soviet Union withdrew from
Afghanistan and bin Laden returned to his home country of Saudi
Arabia, which soon became a center of activity in the wake of
Saddam Hussein's 1990 invasion of Kuwait. Angered by the
continued presence of U.S. troops on Saudi soil, bin Laden began
actively supporting attacks on the United States as well as
financing militant Islamic groups that shared his belief in the
importance of jihad (holy war). In 1998, al Qaeda sponsored
attacks on U.S. embassies in East Africa, bringing the group to
the attention of the Clinton administration. In 2000, they
conducted a suicide bomb attack on the destroyer U.S.S. Cole in
the Yemeni port of Aden. After the September 11th attacks,
evidence emerged that linked bin Laden and al Qaeda to this
attack.
The War on Terror Begins -- NO CHANGES
Afghanistan
The American military action in Afghanistan began with a joint
air operation with Great Britain. British and American air forces
(with support from other nations) took control of Afghani
airspace and began deploying ground troops to overthrow the
Taliban government. Efforts were made to unite with pre-existing
anti-Taliban Afghanis (the Northern Alliance), as well as to
provide food and supplies to civilians in an effort to win support
for the effort to depose the government.
Initial efforts were successful and the combined force quickly
seized control of most of Afghanistan, including the capital city
of Kabul. Members of the Taliban and al Qaeda that were
captured by the coalition were sent to an extraterritorial
American detention facility in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, where
they could be held indefinitely without violating constitutional
due process. A U.S.-backed interim government (led by Hamid
Karzai) was put into place after the fall of the Taliban. Members
of the Taliban that did survive and avoided capture hid in remote
areas, in some cases seeking refuge in neighboring Pakistan. The
conflict continued as the U.S.-backed Karzai government's
control was largely localized around Kabul and Taliban forces
85
sought to win back control of the country. The escalation of
violence prompted a resurgence of American forces in the
beginning of 2006 and again in 2009.
The Axis of Evil -- NO CHANGES
Iraq
The change in the focus of the War on Terror to Iraq officially
stemmed from two issues: whether the Iraqi government had
played any part in the September 11th attacks; and whether Iraq
was in the process of developing weapons of mass destruction.
Weapons of mass destruction refer to weapons that can kill large
numbers of people and/or cause great damage, whether it be
nuclear, biological, or chemical. One of the reasons President
Bush cited Iraq as a member of the "axis of evil" was because he
said they had continued to develop such weapons in defiance of
United Nations resolutions requiring them to surrender or destroy
all such arms. In response, Bush attempted to resurrect the
coalition force that had gone to war against Iraq in 1991.
However, whereas in 1990 Iraq had violated the sovereignty of
another nation (Kuwait), allegations of arms violations in 2002
failed to attract the same level of participation. Some countries
did not feel that the accusations were credible, while others felt
that U.N. weapons inspectors needed more time to ascertain if
Iraq was indeed producing weapons of mass destruction. By early
2003, however, the United States government decided that the
time to wait was over.
In March 2003, a coalition of largely American and British
troops invaded Iraq, with the express goal of unseating the
regime of Saddam Hussein. Many Iraqis welcomed the coalition
as their liberators, though a significant number of Hussein
loyalists pursued a strategy of guerrilla warfare. With Hussein
and his allies in full flight, in May 2003 President Bush declared
the operation in Iraq to be a victory. Despite this declaration,
civil disorder and chaos ran rampant in the wake of the
government's collapse. Looting and rioting were widespread,
complicated by an increase in sectarian violence among rival
religious factions. The majority of American casualties in Iraq
actually came after the president's formal declaration of victory.
Meanwhile, coalition forces found no evidence of the production
86
of weapons of mass destruction, which the Bush administration
had insisted was present in Iraq. Nor was there any evidence
found that would link Iraq to the events of September 11th. (In
the decade to come, American troops would uncover long
abandoned remnants of Hussein's original 1980s weapons
program. However, this was NOT evidence of the active
weapons program that the Bush administration claimed was
ongoing.)
Iran
In 1979, Islamists seized control of Iran and replaced its
monarchy with a theocracy (religious government) under the
guardianship of a religious cleric Since the 1979 Islamic
revolution Iran has made no secret of its desire to spread its
guardianship of a religious cleric. Since the 1979 Islamic
revolution, Iran has made no secret of its desire to spread its
radical version of Islam throughout the region. Its revolution
appealed to Muslims dissatisfied with corruption in their
governments and concerned about Western culture and values
influencing their culture. Consequently, the Iranian revolution
sparked Islamic revolutionary movements in neighboring
countries.
The U.S. had been an active supporter of Iran's previous ruler,
and thus became an active target for those supporting the
revolution. Relations with the new Islamic Republic began badly
when demonstrators stormed the U.S. embassy and kept its
employees hostage for over a year. This pushed the U.S. to
impose sanctions on Iran, and support Iraq during its eight-year
war with Iran (1980-1988).
Within the country, moderating forces struggle against the ruling
Islamic clerics and their followers. From 1997 to 2004, moderate
forces seemed in the ascendancy, which brought hope for a thaw
in U.S.-Iranian relations. However, religious conservatives
regained control in legislative elections in 2004. The election of
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad as president in 2005 completed the
conservative triumph.
President Bush's naming Iran as part of the "axis of evil" (in
2002) was said to be prompted by evidence that Iran was both a
consistent sponsor of terrorism as well as the belief that it was
developing its own nuclear weapons. Despite Ahmadinejad's
87
claims at attempting to engage in simple debate and the
restoration of relations, his rhetoric was often considered
inflammatory and provocative, especially regarding the State of
Israel and the events on September 11th. Ahmadinejad denied
Iran's role as a contributor towards terrorism but insisted that
Iranian nuclear development was for energy purposes, not in the
interest of developing weaponry. While the U.S. government has
repeatedly announced its determination that Iran not be permitted
to produce nuclear weapons, thus far that goal has been met with
diplomatic negotiations and economic sanctions.
North Korea -- NO CHANGES
Policy Changes
America's "Global War on Terror" was seen as having a dual
purpose: to punish those responsible for terrorist attacks and to
ensure that the United States was safe from future attacks. The
campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq were part of the effort to track
down terrorists living abroad, while the USA Patriot Act was the
first step in addressing the issue of internal security. Subsequent
efforts would include giving military equipment to state and local
police departments under the Department of Defense Excess
Property Program (1033 Program), as well as the massive
expansion of digital surveillance that became public in the
Snowden leaks from the National Security Administration After
the September 11th attacks, questions arose as whether or not the
government was organized in the best possible manner in order to
quickly respond to terrorist threats. In response, the Department
of Homeland Security was created in November of 2002.
Acknowledging the importance of proper communication among
government agencies as a way of combating terror, the
Department of Homeland Security encompassed sections of 22
different federal agencies. This new organization included
representatives of a variety of groups addressing everything from
Customs to Health Affairs (although it did not include either the
FBI or the CIA), and is responsible for protecting the territory of
the U.S. from terrorist attacks and responding to natural disasters.
Former Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge, who had been head
of the Office of Homeland Security in the White House, became
an official member of the presidential cabinet as the Secretary of
88
Homeland Security. The present Secretary of Homeland Security
is Jeh Johnson.
Reactions -- NO CHANGES
Evaluation of Social Studies Skills and other important issues
Number Questions
1.
2.
Is the appropriate vocabulary relevant to the subject
matter presented to students?
For example, on comparative government are terms such as
monarchy, oligarchy, democracy, socialism, fascism, and
communism presented?
Are the captions under pictures factual?
3.
Are the charts and graphs relevant to the topic being presented?
4.
Are the maps accurate and relevant to the topic?
5.
Are questions thought provoking? Is adequate and accurate
material provided so that the students can formulate
appropriate answers?
Yes
No
Appropriate vocabulary is presented but terms are not defined
in the text.
Yes
Some of the charts are confusing, misleading.
Yes
Some material is left out, so the students have to research on
their own.
Questions lead to the conclusion at which the author wants the
student to arrive. (e.g., In Ch. 14, Art, photo of the black
panthers holding rifles: Using the image and your knowledge of
American history, answer the following questions:
Why did the Black Panthers place so much emphasis on their right
to bear arms? What do you think were the varying reactions among
black Americans upon seeing a photo such as the above? What do
you think were the varying reactions among white Americans upon
seeing a photo such as the above? In the long run, do you think
such images helped or hurt the cause of black freedom in
America?)
89
6.
Are primary and secondary sources presented for students to
examine (for bias, propaganda, point of view, and frame of
reference)?*
No – there are no sources, references
7.
Does the text present a lesson on how to evaluate the validity
of a source based on language, corroboration with other
sources, and information about the author? *
No
8.
Does the textbook have a Glossary? Are key terms included
and defined?
9.
Does the textbook have accurate timelines to help the student
understand chronological historical developments?
Yes,
there is a
Glossary
Key terms are not defined in the text, and some terms are
missing,
The timeline presented is factually inadequate.
Commendations:
This Techbook has so many factual omissions and errors that it can be considered a work of fiction, not History
Concerns:
This work must be kept away from American schools.
Evaluations based on template
Choices
Explanations
1.
This text has minor changes that need to be made
2.
This text has a moderate number of changes
3.
This text has substantial changes that need to be made
4.
This book is so flawed that it is not recommended for adoption.
Yes
No
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