Age of Nation States
Origins of Nationalism
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(This slide is review !!)
What is a Nation?
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not a state
not a political entity
Usually thought of as combining:
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common history
-common language [problem in Eastern Europe]
common religion
self-awareness of group status
The Crimean War
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Started over two disputes
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The Ottoman’s gave Roman Catholics control over
holy places in Palestine
Russia wanted to extend control over Moldavia and
Walachia(Romania)
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Russia used the right to protect Orthodox Christians to move
into the two territories
Conflict between France and Britain vs. Russia
was due to the weakness of the Ottomans
Both sides were terrible
First war to be photographed
Crimean Results
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1856 Treaty of Paris
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Russia surrendered territory near the Danube
Black Sea became neutral
Russia gave up claims to protecting Ottoman
Christians
Concert of Europe ended
Reforms in the Ottomans
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1839- Hatt-I Sharif of Gulhane
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Reorganize the empires administration and military like the rest
of Europe
1839-1876 – Reorganization Era
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Reforms by councils
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Hatti-I Humayun
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Opened up the economy, ended tax farming, and corruption
Extended civic religious equality
Rights for non-Muslims
Required military service for non-Muslims
Eliminated torture
Opened up to European scholarship
Reforms were not completed uniformly
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Led to calls for a Constitution
Led to military revolt- Young Turks
Italian Unification
•Division of Italy:
•Bourbon king ruled Kingdom of Two Sicilies,
•Pope governed Papal States,
•Habsburg princes ruled duchies of Tuscany, Parma, Modena
• Piedmont and Sardinia ruled by House of Savoy (Italian)
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Forces against unification of
Italy
 Except for middle Class
most Italian clung to values
of Old Regime
 Peasants and ruling class
rejected values of
Enlightenment and French
Revolution
 Religious people and
traditionalists rejected unity
(Pope must rule Rome and
Central Italy)
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Forces for unification of Italy
 Middle class merchants and
manufacturers (they wanted
r.r. and roads, abolish taxes
on trade goods from one
part of Italy to another,
standardized weights,
measures, and coins, wanted
greater opportunity)
 Students – influence of
Romanticism; the “glorious
past” of the Roman Empire
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Failed Revolution
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Carbonari – secret societies
Brief revolutionary success in 1829 – King. Of
Two Sicilies
Little support from peasants; Austrian suppression
Mazzini – Young Italy
Count Camillo Benso di Cavour
Cavour’s Policy
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Cavour & Victory Over Austria
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Count Camillo Cavour was the architect of Italian
unity (chief minister of Piedmont)
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Reorganized currency, taxes, built r.r. – modernized
Piedmont joined England and France in Crimean
War
At peace conference Cavour denounced Austrian
occupation of Italy
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Practical statesman – opposed to democratic republics
Conservative nationalist
Cavour gained support of Napoleon III (Fr.)
Piedmont conquered Lombardy, Milan
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Revolutions in Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Romagna – all
joined Piedmont
Garibaldi’s Campaign
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Garibaldi and Victory in the South
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Garibaldi
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Piedmont victory spurred revolution in K. of
Two Sicilies
Garibaldi and 1,000 Red Shirts liberated
Sicily
Garibaldi turned over conquests to King
Victor
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liberal nationalist
(Emmanuel of Piedmont – King of Italy 1861)
During 1866 conflict between Austria and
Prussia Venetia was added to Italy
During Franco-Prussia War (1870) Rome
was added
New Italian State
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France- protecting Rome for the pope,
Withdrew troops from Rome.
 Italian state troops move in and take Rome united Italy.
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North and South
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Pro-State and Pro-Pope parties:
Pope becomes "Prisoner of the Vatican
 Huge class divisions
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German Unification
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After 1848 Prussia was strongest state in
Germany.
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Only Prussia could unite Germany
William I had a problem of controlling the
Prussian Parliament and getting money
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Recruited Bismarck. 1862.
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Had been Ambassador to Russia and France
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In 1848 to Frankfurt Assembly
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
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Most remarkable political leader of late
19th century.
Ruled Prussia from 1862, and Germany
from 1871, to 1890, as Chancellor.
Blood and Iron - Speech to Parliament
1862 - Germany would not be united by
the liberals who had no power base, but
rather by blood and iron.
Unification of Germany
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Zollverein [A customs union] 1834:
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Pushed idea of non-Austrian Germany.
1848 - Frankfurt Assembly debated issue
of Klein [little] or Gross [big] Deutschland.
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Inclusion of Austria.
Austria contained many other nationalities than
Germans
Three Prussian Wars
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War with Denmark 1864
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Schleswig-Holstein - cause of the dispute.
Austria supports Prussia.
Prussia becomes leader of Germany.
War with Austria 1866 - lasts 7 weeks
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Austria isolated from France and Russia
Victory meant Austria gave up its role in Germany.
North German Confederation established in 1866.
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Creates structure of Bundesrat and Reichstag
War with France 1870-71
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Over Spanish Marriages.
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Bismarck doctors the Ems telegram to insult
France.
Brings Southern Germany into war with
France, claims Alsace-Lorraine
Prussia Wins - 1870 - Battle of Sedan.
The German Empire [Reich] 1871
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Empire proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at
Versailles in 1871.
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All German state, maintaining some independence
agree to join a German Empire.
United German Parliament: the Bundesrat, lower
house called the Reichstag.
Germany is united by semi-authoritarian nationalism.
This was the "Second Reich."
Not a liberal democracy,
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Slightly limited monarchy
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Dominated by the old ruling class
France- Third Empire
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Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, nephew of the
great Emperor, won a landslide election
victory.
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Seized power in a coup d'etat on 2 December
1851.
In 1852, he moved into the Tuileries Palace
as Emperor of France
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Napoléon III.
Empire Building
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Napoléon III combined authoritarianism with crowd-pleasing social
welfare in true Bonapartist style.
Attempted to make Austrian Archduke Maximilian Emperor of
Mexico.
He had plans for Paris too: to complete the Louvre, landscape the
Bois de Boulogne, construct new iron market halls at Les Halles,
and open up a series of new boulevards and train stations.
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Appointed Baron Haussmann Préfet de la Seine from 1853.
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Paris was a showcase city, with the first department stores and the
International Exhibition of 1867. With so much building work, there was
plenty of opportunity for speculation. The world capital of sensual pleasure
was again decried as a 'New Babylon'.
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, Charles Garnier's Palais Garnier.
Haussmann was forced to resign in 1869 after some of his projects were found to
be based on highly questionable accounts.
Palais Garnier.
1870-71: Franco-Prussian War
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In 1870, the Emperor was maneuvered into war with the German
states, led by Bismarck's Prussia.
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French were crushed at Sedan, on 4 September 1870;
Napoléon III abdicated.
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A new Republic was proclaimed to much cheering at the Hôtel de Ville.
Yet within weeks Paris was under Prussian siege. Beleaguered Parisians
starved.
The French government negotiated a temporary armistice,
then hastily arranged elections for a National Assembly mandated to make
peace.
Paris voted republican, but the majority went to conservative monarchists.
Peace agreed at Versailles on 28 January 1871
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a five billion-franc indemnity,
Occupation by 30,000 German troops and ceding of Alsace-Lorraine was seen as a betrayal
the new Assembly under Adolphe Thiers spurned the mutinous capital
for Versailles.
Paris commune
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March to May 1871
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Adolphe Thiers sent a detachment of soldiers to Montmartre to collect 200
cannons from the Garde Nationale
 paid for through public subscription to defend the city during the
German siege.
 insurrectionists led by schoolteacher Louise Michels fended off the
troops.
 Thiers immediately ordered all government officials and the army to
head for Versailles,
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leaving the city in the hands of the poor and a wide-ranging spectrum
of radicals.
 On 26 March, the Commune of Paris created at the Hôtel de Ville
 Workers, clerks, accountants, journalists, lawyers, teachers, artists,
doctors and a handful of small business owners,
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Decreed the separation of Church and State,
the secularization of schools,
abolition of night work in bakeries,
creation of workers' cooperatives,
moratorium on debts and rents.
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Artists got swept up in Commune fever. A federation
established in April 1871 attracted such talents as Corot,
Daumier, Manet and Millet.
 Mission: to suppress the Academy and the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts, in favor of art freed of governmental
sanctions.
 Courbet reopened the Louvre and the Muséum d'Histoire
Naturelle.
 On 12 April, the column on place Vendôme celebrating
Napoléon's victories was knocked down.
 Strong Commune support among workers and
intellectuals,
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Lack of organization and political experience proved fatal,
Outnumbered.
Thiers and his Versaillais troops retook the city.
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the Commune's two principal military strategists, Flourens and Duval,
were taken prisoner and executed.
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An estimated 3,000-4,000 Communards were killed in combat,
 The Commune retaliated by kidnapping and killing the Archbishop of
Paris and other clergy, setting fire to a third of the city.
 The Hôtel de Ville and Tuileries palace were set ablaze.
The Third republic
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Established in 1871, was an unloved compromise,
 Survived for 70 years. The right yearned for the restoration of the monarchy;
to the left, the Republic was tainted by its suppression of the Commune.
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Paris' busy boulevards, railway stations and cafés provided inspiration for the
Impressionists, led by Monet, Renoir, Manet, Degas and Pissarro.
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Rejected by the official Salon, their first exhibition took place in 1874 in photographer
Félix Nadar's atelier, on boulevard des Capucines.
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The city celebrated its faith in science and progress with two World Exhibitions.
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The 1889 exhibition was designed to mark the centenary of the Revolution and
confirm the respectability of the Third Republic.
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Centerpiece- the Eiffel Tower.
On 1 April 1900 another World Exhibition greeted the new century.
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A futuristic city sprang up along the Seine, of which the Grand and Petit Palais, ornate
Pont Alexandre III and Gare d'Orsay (now Musée d'Orsay) remain.
In July, the first Paris Métro shuttled passengers from Porte Maillot to Vincennes, in
the unheard-of time of 25 minutes. The 1900 Exhibition drew over 50 million visitors.
Dreyfus Affair
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Time to add your own. . .
Who was Dreyfus
 Who else was involved?
 What happened to him
 What were the political impacts?
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Austria-Hungary
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Hapsburg post 1848
1/6 Ger left out (Austro & Bohemians)
multi-national empire:
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Lasts until 1918
Prob: how to deal w/national self-expression
wanted certain nat’l rights - not to destroy empire
Hungary: const. autonomy
Slavs: Austroslavism
needed large political structure empire provided
Francis Joseph (r. 1848-1916)
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longer than Queen Victoria)
disliked change: anything liberal, progressive,
modern
allies: Cath hierachy, Vatican
personally: incapable of enlarged views, ambitious
projects, bold decisions, persevering action
surr. self in dream wld of imperial crt.
Govt not idle:
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experiments tried, but never long enough
main focus: Germanization
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centralization...distasteful to non-Ger, i.e. Magyars
Ausgleich: Compromise of 1867
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Austro-Bohemian Germans & Magyars
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common disadvantage to Slavs (who were seen as
less than civilized wo/guidance)
idea behind comp = Ger/Magyars each “govern its
barbarians in its own way”
Austria / Hungary
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each considered exactly = ....ea own const./own parl
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Austria as kind of Ger nation state, Hungary as kind of
Magyar nation state...
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tie: same person emperor in Austria / King in Hungary
delegates of parls met reg: common ministry for finance, foreign
affairs, war
Ger < 1/2 ppl Austria and Magyars < 1/2 ppl Hungary
Aust: Slovenes, Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, (Ital)
Hungary: Slovaks, Croats, Serbs, Transylvanians
Form: Const. parliamentary states
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neither democratic
landlordism predominant vs. peasant masses
abol of serfdom 1848 maintained, but not really allowed to
affect nationality
TSARIST RUSSIA
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Russia covered one-sixth of the world’s land surface, was
unprotected by natural boundaries, had a poor climate,
poor communications, as well as extensive ethnic,
religious, and cultural diversity held together by force.
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the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution,
the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolutionbarely touched Russia.
Made Russia a backwards country; however, the fact
that their rulers intermarried with those of Europe
gave them some claim to being part of Europe.
Autocracy of Tsar
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no real notion men have rights, justice
tsar not rule by law
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Ukase, police, army
State built by import Eur technol...often forced
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pure bureaucracy under tsar
no real connection w/ppl
tsar not interested in liberty, fraternity, or just & classless
society,
Indiv personality enriched by humane culture & moral
freedom...
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Ideas more Russians gained from Eur contact, & of which govt was
afraid
Press & universities censored, repressed
Russian Serfdom
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Resembled slavery: serfs “owned” - bought/sold
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Unpaid labor on land
Factories/mines, or rented out
More free (artisan, mechanic), but paid fees to lord,
or returnd when summoned
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Total depend upon personality
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Economic position of lord
law not interfere
Educated Russians
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intelligentsia a class apart
Students, univ grads, leisure to read
 Not very free to think...yet more free to think than to do
almost anything else
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Believed intellectuals should play lg role in society
Had exaggerated idea of direct influence of
thinkers....
Some turned in disillusionment to rev & terrorist
philosophies
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govt fearful of possibilities
Crimean War
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Crimean War exposes Russia’s weakness
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Economically backward
Technologically behind
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Tsar Alexander II decides to abolish serfdom in 1861
"better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it begins to abolish
itself from below"
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But freed serfs had to pay back the landlords and fell into
debt
Some reforms made in the government but no fundamental
changes in limiting Tsar’s power
Tsar Alexander made some reforms in 1864, but he was
unable to control the forces unleashed by his reform
program. Reformers want more and rapid change.
Alexander II assassinated by revolutionaries in 1881
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Some reforms made in the government but no
fundamental changes in limiting Tsar’s power
Tsar Alexander made some reforms in 1864, but he
was unable to control the forces unleashed by his
reform program. Reformers want more and rapid
change.
Alexander II assassinated by revolutionaries in
1881
ALEXANDER II
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The newly found freedoms and
spirit provided the right
environment for a number of
revolutionary groups to grow,
including the nihilists and the
populists.
The most dangerous
revolutionaries proved to be a
group called the "Will of the
People" which believed that
terrorist acts and
assassinations of top
government officials was the
swiftest way for them to
change society and overthrow
the government.
Alexander III
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In reaction, Alexander III sought to roll back his
father’s reform
He and Nicholas I perfected the police state.
He forced industrialization on Russia, including
the building of the Trans-Siberian Railroad in
1891.
Forced industrialization, however, created a
discontented working class.
Emancipation Act 1861
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Alex II wanted supp of lib intelligentsia
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Relaxed repression
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Nicholas I: reactionary
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New newspapers, journals
Entrance of revol lit from outside.. i.e. Polar Star: Alex Herzen
Result: grt outburst pub opinion: biggest = end serfdom!
“third section” (secret police)
Had tried to alleviate serfdom
Alex II studied problem:
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Couldn’t risk destroy labor sys/econ or ruin necessary gentry...
Emancipation Act 1861
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serfs legally free in western sense
Subjects of govt, not owners
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1/2 land gentry
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1/2 to former serfs
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paid redemption fees
outright ownership of land prop not really private
mir: coll. prop of village
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instead of prop mort.,
got $ & not obligated to peasants
gentry not weakened
Mir resp.as unit to govt
Still allowed for forced labor – to prevent migration
controlled assign of land
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govt forbade sell/mort land to outsiders
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lack investment from other nations
members not actually equal
restrictd by mir as had been by lord...
Judicial Reforms
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westernizd: an edict of 1864
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trials public
repres. by lawyers own choice
no class distinctions: in theory
higher/lower courts
professional training judges
sys of juries
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basically attempted - rule by law
Reforms for Middle and Upper Classes
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Another edict 1864:
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Zemstvos(elected): provincial & district councils
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many libs want national repres. body, like Duma
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Alex II refused
post 1864... pendulum swung back
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matters of: education, medical, welfare, food, roads
Developed civic sentiment
conservative (rev in Poland 1863)
Alex began mollify those who disliked reforms
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Essence of reforms remained
Great Britain Toward Democracy
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Overview of GB
GB is model liberal state
Prosperity mitigates social conflict of 1830s & 40s
Wealthy remain in power (sportsmanship, take turns)
Unions push for cash, Par. absorbs new interests
Gladstone & Disraeli expand suffrage
Second Reform Act of 1867
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Working class more prosperous & responsible
by 1860
Conserv. Disraeli allows expansion of
suffrage
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Hopes new voters will vote Conserv.
# of voters goes from 1.4m to 2.4m (2m more
in 1884)
New election (1868) produces
Gladstone’s Great Ministry
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culmination of liberalism in GB 1868-74
aristocratic institutions opened to all:
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competitive CS exams
end to purchase of commissions
end to Anglican reqs at Oxford & Cam
secret ballot
1870- gov’t takes over elem. schools
citizens more loyal when there is less
discontent
Disraeli Follows Gladstone 1874
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State action will help weak
Pub. Health Act (1875) consolidates old laws
& health & safety duty of state
Artisans Dwelling Act (1875)
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Gov’t involved in housing Working Class
More protection for unions
Irish Home Rule
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major issue of Gladstones 2nd ministry
Irish sought home rule
Two major probs:
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Peasants defenseless against landlords
Tithes to church of Ireland
had already helped them (ends Church of Ire. &
Land Act of 1870)
Parnell establishes Irish bloc in Par.
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Balance of power (obstructionist)
More Irish Rule
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1885- Irish bloc hooks up with Libs.
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Ireland stays under GB, tries to reconcile with
reform &. works
1892- Gladstone is reelected
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Some libs. go with Conservs. who win
Home Rule Bill dies in House of Lords
1900- more land reform, gov’t helping peasants buy
land
1912- HRB passed over Lords veto 3 times
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WWI stalls changes
Even More Irish Rule
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N. Irish Presbyterians (Ulstermen) refuse to
go with rest of Ire
Catholic Ireland (Eire) ind. in 1922, N. Ire
stay with GB
RC minority in N. Ireland is pissed, continues
to fight for ind.
The Irish ? plays major role in GB politics
from 1860-1920
New Nations and Democracy
in Europe in 1800s
The people of Belgium gained their independence
from the Dutch in 1830 and established a
constitutional monarchy under Leopold I.
Norway and Sweden were united under one monarchy
for most of the 1800s until Norway broke the union in
1905.
In 1907 it became the first sovereign state to give the vote
to women. Sweden followed their example in 1909.
The Netherlands progressed toward democracy with
their first constitution in 1849.
Switzerland used the principle of direct democracy in
their 1874 constitution.
Denmark gained significant democratic reforms in the
early 1900s.
Spain and Portugal, unlike the rest of the nations of
western Europe, made little progress toward
democracy.