LEARNING
Learning- a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – learning based on association of stimuli
Ivan Pavlov
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Unconditioned response (UR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
Acquisition phase
Delayed conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
Backward conditioning
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
First-order conditioning
Second-order conditioning
Equipotentiality
Learned taste aversions
Salient
Contiguity model – the Pavlovian model, the more times two things are paired, the
greater the learning that will take place
Contingency model- Rescorla – rests of cognitive view of classical conditioning: If A is
contingent on B and vice versa then one predicts the other, learning more powerful.
OPERANT CONDITIONING – kind of learning based on the association of
consequences with one’s behavior.
Edward Thorndike
Law of effect
Instrumental learning
B.F. Skinner
Skinner box
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Omission training
Punishment
Escape learning
Avoidance learning
Shaping
Chaining
Primary reinforcers
Secondary reinforcers
Premack principle – the reinforcing properties of something depend on the
situation
Instinctive drift
Reinforcement schedules differ in two ways:
What determines when reinforcement is delivered – the number of responses made
(ratio) or the passage of time (interval)
The pattern of reinforcement – either constant (fixed) or changing (variable)
Observational learning –
 also known as modeling
 was studied by Albert Bandura in formulating his social-learning theory
 A significant body of research indicates that children learn violent behaviors from
watching violent television programs and violent adult models
Latent learning
 studied by Edward Tolman
 is hidden learning
 experiment with maze running rats, ones that didn’t initially get a reward didn’t
seem to learn, but when they started being rewarded their performance changed
drastically
Abstract learning
 involves understanding concepts such as tree or same
 Skinner box pigeons picking out certain shapes
Insight learning
 Wolfgang Kohler did studies with chimpanzees
 Insight learning occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem
 Chimps using boxes to reach banana
What Is Learning?
*Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. Learning
resulting from conditioning depends on reinforcement. Reinforcement increases the
probability that a particular response will occur.
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Classical (or respondent) conditioning and Operant (or instrumental) conditioning
are two basic types of learning.
In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus begins to elicit a response
through association with another stimulus. In operant conditioning, the frequency
and pattern of voluntary responses are altered by their consequences.
How does classical conditioning occur?


Classical conditioning, studied by Pavlov, occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) is
associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US).
The US causes a reflex called the unconditioned response (UR). If the NS is
consistently paired with the US, it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) capable
of producing a response by itself. This response is a conditioned (learned)
response (CR).
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When the conditioned stimulus is followed by the unconditioned stimulus,
conditioning is reinforced (strengthened).
From an informational view, conditioning creates expectancies, which alter
response patterns. In classical conditioning the CS creates an expectancy that the
US will follow.
Higher order conditioning occurs when a well-learned conditioned stimulus is
used as if it were an unconditioned stimulus, bringing about further learning.
When the CS is repeatedly presented alone, conditioning is extinguished
(weakened or inhibited). After extinction seems to be complete, a rest period may
lead to the temporary reappearance of a conditioned response. This is called
spontaneous recovery.
Through stimulus generalization, stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus will
also produce a response. Generalization gives way to stimulus discrimination
when an organism learns to respond to one stimulus but not to similar stimuli.
Does Conditioning affect emotions?


Conditioning applies to visceral or emotional responses as well as simple reflexes.
As a result, conditioned emotional responses (CERs) also occur.
Irrational fears called phobias may be CERs. Conditioning of emotional
responses can occur vicariously (secondhand) as well as directly.
How does operant conditioning occur?
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Operant conditioning occurs when voluntary action is followed by a reinforcer.
Reinforcement in operant conditioning increases the frequency or probability of a
response. This result is based on the law of effect.
Complex operant responses can be taught by reinforcing successive
approximations to a final desired response. This is called shaping. It is
particularly useful in training animals.
If an operant response is not reinforced, it may extinguish (disappear). But after
extinction seems complete, it may temporarily reappear (spontaneous recovery).
Are there different kinds of operant reinforcement?
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In positive reinforcement, a reward or pleasant event follows a response. In
negative reinforcement, a response that ends discomfort becomes more likely.
Primary reinforcers are “natural”, physiologically based rewards. Intracranial
stimulation of ‘pleasure centers’ in the brain can also serve as a primary
reinforcer.
Secondary reinforcers are learned. They typically gain their reinforcing value by
direct association with primary reinforcers or because they can be exchanged for
primary reinforcers. Tokens and money gain their reinforcing value in this way.
Feedback, or knowledge of results, aids learning and improves performance. It is
most effective when it is immediate, detailed and frequent.
Programmed instruction breaks learning into a series of small steps, and provides
immediate feedback. Computer-assisted instruction (CAT) does the same but has
the added advantage of providing alternate exercises and information when
needed. Four variations of CAI are drill and practice, instructional games,
educational simulations, and interactive videodisk instruction.
How are we influenced by patterns of reward?
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delay of reinforcement greatly reduces its effectiveness, but long chains of
responses may be built up so that a single reinforcer maintains many responses.
Superstitious behaviors often become part of response chains because they appear
to be associated with reinforcement….
Reward or reinforcement may be given continuously (after every response) or on
a schedule of partial reinforcement. Partial reinforcement produces greater
resistance to extinction.
The four most basic schedules of reinforcement are fixed ratio, variable ratio,
fixed interval, and variable interval. Each produces a distinct pattern of
responding.
Stimuli that precede a reinforced response tend to control the response on future
occasions (stimulus control). Two aspects of stimulus control are generalization
and discrimination.
In generalization an operant response tends to occur when stimuli similar to those
preceding reinforcement are present.
In discrimination, responses are given in the presence of discriminative stimuli
associated with reinforcement (S+) and withheld in the presence of stimuli
associated with nonreinforcement (S-)
What does punishment do to behavior?
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Punishment decreases responding. Punishment occurs when a response is
followed by the onset of an aversive event or by the removal of a positive event
(response cost)
Punishment is most effective when it is immediate, consistent and intense. Mild
punishment tends to only temporarily suppress responses that are also reinforced
or were acquired by reinforcement.
The undesirable side effects of punishment include the conditioning of fear to
punishing agents and situations associated with punishment, the learning of
escape and avoidance responses, and the encouragement of aggression.
What is cognitive learning?
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Cognitive learning involves higher mental processes. such as understanding,
knowing, or anticipating. Even in relatively simple learning situations, animals
and people seem to form cognitive maps (internal representations or
relationships).
In latent learning, learning remains hidden or unseen until a reward or incentive
for performance is offered.
Discovery learning emphasizes insight and understanding, in contrast to rote
learning.
Does learning occur by imitation?
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Much human learning is achieved through observation, or modeling.
Observational learning is influenced by the personal characteristics of the model
and the success or failure of the model’s behavior. Studies have shown that
aggression is readily learned and released by modeling.
Television characters can act as powerful models for observational learning.
Televised violence increases the likelihood of aggression by viewers.
How does conditioning apply to practical problems?
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Operant principles can be readily applied to manage behavior in everyday
settings. When managing one’s own behavior, self-reinforcement, self-recording,
feedback, and behavioral contracting are all helpful.
Four strategies that can help change bad habits are reinforcing alternate responses,
promoting extinction, breaking response chains, and avoiding antecedent cues.
In school, self-regulated learners typically do all of the following: They set
learning goals, plan learning strategies, use self-instruction, monitor their
progress, evaluate themselves, reinforce successes, and take corrective action
when required.
How does biology influence learning?
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Many animals are born with innate behavior patterns far more complex than
reflexes. These are organized into fixed action patterns (FAPs), which are
stereotyped, species-specific behaviors.
Learning in animals is limited at times by various biological constraints and
species-typical behaviors.
According to prepared fear theory, some stimuli are especially effective
conditioned stimuli.
Many responses are subject to instinctive drift in operant conditioning. Human learning
is subtly influenced by many such biological potentials and limits
PSYCHOLOGY ON THE NET
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Memory A short tutorial on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
cognitive learning. http://www.science.wayne.edu/~wpoff/memory.html.
.Observational Learning- Presents Bandura’s original work on modeling, with
graphs. http://www.valdosta.peachnet.edu/~whuitt/psy702/behsys/social.html
Oppatoons – Cartoons of rats undergoing conditioning.
http://www.thecroft.com/psy/toons/OppaToons.html
LEARNING QUIZ – Conditioning/Learning
1. Just before something scary happens in a horror film, they often play scary sounding
music. When I hear the music, I tense up in anticipation of the scary event. In this
situation, the music serves as a
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
US.
CS
UR
CR
NR
2. Try as you might, you are unable to teach your dog to do a somersault. He will roll
around on the ground, but he refuses to execute the gymnastic move you desire
because of
A. equipotentiality
B. preparedness.
C. instinctive drift
D.
E.
chaining.
shaping.
3. Which of the following is an example of a generalized reinforcer?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
chocolate cake
water
money
applause
high grades
4. In teaching your cat to jump through a hoop, which reinforcement schedule would
facilitate the most rapid learning?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
continuous
fixed ratio
variable ratio
fixed interval
variable interval
5. The classical conditioning training procedure in which the US is presented first is
known as
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
backward conditioning.
Forward conditioning.
Simultaneous conditioning.
Delayed conditioning.
Regular conditioning.
6. Tina likes to play with slugs, but she can find them by the shed only after it rains. On
what kind of reinforcement schedule is Tina’s slug hunting?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
continuous
fixed interval
fixed ratio
variable interval
variable ratio
7. Just before the doors of the elevator close, Lola, a coworker you despise, enters the
elevator. You immediately leave, mumbling about having forgotten something.
Exiting the elevator is an example of
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
positive reinforcement
a secondary reinforcer.
Punishment.
Negative reinforcement.
Omission training.
8. Which researcher studied latent learning?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Kohler
Bandura
Tolman
Watson
Skinner
9. Many psychologists believe that children of parents who beat them are likely to beat
their own children. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
modeling.
Latent learning.
Abstract learning.
Instrumental learning.
Classical conditioning.
10. When Tito was young, his parents decided to give him a quarter every day he made
his bed. Tito started to make his siblings’ beds also and help with other chores.
Behaviorists would say that Tito was experiencing
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
internal motivation.
Spontaneous recovery.
Acquisition.
Generalization.
Discrimination.
11. A rat evidencing abstract learning might learn
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
to clean and feed itself by watching its mother perform these activities.
To associate its handler’s presence with feeding time.
To press a bar when a light is on but not when its cage is dark.
The layout of amaze without hurrying to get to the end.
To press a lever when he sees pictures of dogs but not cats.
12. With which statement would B.F. Skinner most likely agree?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Pavlov’s dog learned to expect that food would follow the bell.
Baby Albert thought the white rat meant the loud noise would sound.
All learning is observable.
Pigeons peck disks knowing that they will receive food.
Cognition plays an important role in learning.
13. Before his parents will read him a bedtime story, Charley has to brush his teeth, put
on his pajamas, kiss his grandmother goodnight, and put away his toys. This example
illustrates
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
shaping.
Acquisition.
Generalization.
Chaining.
A token economy.
14. Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement?
A. Buying a child a video game after she throws a tantrum.
B. Going inside to escape a thunderstorm.
C. Assigning a student detention for fighting.
D. Getting a cavity filled at the dentist to halt a toothache.
E. Depriving a prison inmate of sleep.
15. Lily keeps poking Jared in Mr. Clayton’s third-grade class. Mr. Clayton tells Jared to
ignore Lily. Mr. Clayton is hoping that ignoring Lily’s behavior will
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
punish her.
Extinguish her behavior.
Negatively reinforce the behavior.
Cause Lily to generalize.
Make the behavior latent
A Review of Classical and Operant Conditioning
Types of Learning:
Classical = an association is made between two stimuli
Operant = an association made between a behavior and a consequence
Observational = behavior is the result of imitation or experience
A comparison of classical and operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning: (PAVLOV)
Acquisition:
Learning begins with an association between a CS and a UCS
(The bell introduces the food and the dog salivates to the bell only)
Extinction:
The behavior stops when the CS no longer introduces the UCS.
(The dog no longer salivates to the sound of the bell since no food is presented
with the bell)
Spontaneous
Recovery:
The behavior resumes when the CS again is presented with the UCS after
extinction and a rest period.
(The dog again salivates to the bell alone)
Generalization: A CR occurs to any stimulus that is similar to the original CS.
(The dog responds to any bell similar to the one first presented).
Discrimination: A CR only occurs to a certain stimuli even if similar to the original CS
(The dog only responds to certain bells or the first one presented)
Operant Conditioning: (SKINNER)
Acquisition:
Learning occurs when a behavior is rewarded or punished.
(A child is given a dollar for a good grade.)
Extinction:
The behavior stops when the consequences stop
(The child stops making good grades since there is no reward.)
Spontaneous
again
Recovery:
The behavior resumes after extinction and a rest period when a consequence is
presented with the behavior.
(The child resumes making good grades fro getting a dollar.)
Generalization: The behavior occurs to any reward similar to the original reward.
(The child makes good grades for a dollar or a quarter)
Discrimination: The behavior occurs only to the original reward.
(The child makes good grades for a dollar, but not for a quarter)
Important terms associated with Operant Conditioning:
Shaping
Latent Learning
Cognitive Maps
Overjustification Effect
A COMPARISON OF REINFORCEMENT VS. PUNISHMENT
Positive (giving
something)
Negative (taking
something away)
Reinforcement (encourages a
behavior)
A piece of candy for buckling
seatbelt
The buzzing sound stops when
you buckle your seatbelt
Punishment (discourages a
behavior)
A spanking for not buckling
your seatbelt
Time Out for not buckling
your seltbelt
Reinforcement can be primary (innately satisfying; chocolate) or secondary (learned to be
satisfying, money). It can also be continuous or partial (intermittent)
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio schedules (numbers)
Fixed ratio:
vs.
Interval schedules (timing)
rewards offered after a set number of responses.
(Being paid per item you sew, factory quotas)
Variable ratio: rewards offered after an unpredictable number of responses
(slot machines, hitting in a batting cage)
Fixed interval: rewards offered after a fixed time period.
(semester grades, monthly paychecks)
Variable interval: rewards offered after varying time periods.
(pop quizzes, arrival of the mail, fishing)
Observational Learning (BANDURA)
Prosocial Behavior: imitating positive behaviors (role modeling)
Antisocial Behavior: imitating negative behaviors (Bobo Doll Experiment)
Lesson 1: Attributes of Learning and Classical Conditioning
I. Attributes of learning
A. Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or
knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.
B. Distinction between learning and performance
1. Performance is an exhibited behavior
2. Learning can be inferred from performance, but performance is not always an
accurate measure of learning
II. Classical conditioning
A. Definitions
1. Classical conditioning is defined as learning that takes place when an
originally neutral stimulus comes to produce a conditioned response because of
its association with an unconditioned stimulus.
2. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) reflexively produces an unconditioned
response (UCR), even in the absence of previous training.
3. A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that has come to elicit a
conditioned response (CR) because the organism associates the conditioned
stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus.
B. Acquisition
1. Involves repeated pairings of the CS and the UCS.
2. Paradigms:
a. Trace conditioning occurs when the CS is presented and terminated before
the presentation of the UCS. Conditioning is often effective when the interval
between the presentation of the CS and the UCS is about a half second.
b. Delay conditioning occurs when the CS is presented and continues at least
until the UCS is presented.
c. Simultaneous conditioning occurs when the CS and the UCS are presented
and terminated at the same time.
d. Backward conditioning occurs when the UCS is presented before the CS.
e. Temporal conditioning occurs when the nominal CS is a fixed period of time
between presentations of the UCS.
C. Extinction
1. A procedure that leads to the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance
of the CR
2. Involves repeatedly presenting the CS without paining it with the UCS
D. Spontaneous recovery occurs when a previously extinguished CR suddenly
reappears after a period of no training
Lesson 2: Classical Conditioning (continued)
l. Classical conditioning
A. Generalization
1. Occurs when a CR occurs to stimuli that are similar to the CS, even though
these stimuli may never have been associated with the UCS
2. The more similar the stimuli are the CS, the greater the likelihood of
generalization. [replace with gradient]
B. Discrimination
1. Occurs when stimuli similar to the CS do not produce a CR
2. The more similar the stimuli are to the CS, the greater the difficulty of
discrimination.
C. Famous demonstrations of classical conditioning
1. Ivan Pavlov and his dogs
a. The sound of a metronome (CS) was paired with meat powder (UCS) until the
CS alone produced salivation (CR)
b. This demonstration established the basic components of classical
conditioning: acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination
2. John Watson and Little Albert
a. The sight of a white rat (CS) was paired with loud noise (UCS) until the CS
alone produced crying and other responses indicative of fear (CR)
b. This demonstration showed that human emotional responses could develop as
a result of classical conditioning
D. Theoretical models of classical conditioning
1. Contiguity model
a. Argues conditioning will occur whenever a CS and a UCS are paired
b. Based on the work of Pavlov
2.
Contingency model
a. Argues the CS must reliably predict the USC for conditioning to occur
b. Based on the work of Robert Rescorla and Allen Wagner
c. This model is supported by phenomena like blocking, demonstrated by Leon
Kamin (1969)
Lesson 3: Instrumental Learning and Operant Conditioning
I. Instrumental learning
A. Means that an organism's behavior is instrumental in producing an
environmental change that in turn affects the organism's behavior
B. Based on the work of Edward L. Thorndike (1974-1949)
C. The fundamental principle is Thorndike's Law of Effect, which states behaviors
are encouraged when they are followed by rewarding consequences and
discouraged when they are followed by punishing consequences
II. Operant conditioning
A. The system of instrumental learning developed by B. F. Skinner (1904-1990).
Operant conditioning can be used to influence the likelihood of an organism's
response by controlling the consequences of the response.
B. Shaping
1. A technique whereby successive approximations of a behavior are reinforced.
In other words, behaviors that come closer and closer to the final target behavior
are reinforced by the training.
2. This technique makes it possible to operantly condition behaviors that are not
likely to happen otherwise.
C. Discriminative stimulus (SD)
1. Defined as a stimulus that signals or informs the organism of the availability of
reward or punishment. For example, the ring of a telephone is a discriminative
stimulus which informs a person that the behavior of answering is likely to be met
with the reward of a conversation. Similarly, the presence of a scowl on a
parent's face signals a teenager that the behavior of asking a favor of the parent
is likely to be met with rejection.
2. These stimuli are valuable for determining when a particular behavior will
occur. Phones are only answered when they ring and favors are generally not
asked when a parent is scowling.
D. Training procedures
1. Positive reinforcement occurs when an appetitive (desired) stimulus follows
a behavior. This procedure makes the behavior more likely to recur. For
example, if a child is given praise (appetitive stimulus) for picking up a toy
(behavior), the child will be more likely to pick up the toy in the future.
2. Negative reinforcement occurs when an aversive (not desired) stimulus is
prevented or eliminated following a behavior. This procedure makes the behavior
more likely to recur. For example, if a child takes out the garbage (behavior) and
her mother stops nagging (aversive stimulus), the child will be more likely to take
out the garbage in the future.
3. Punishment occurs when an aversive (not desired) stimulus follows a
behavior. In real life results are varied and controversial, but this procedure
theoretically makes the behavior less likely to recur. For example, if a child has
his hand slapped (aversive stimulus) for pulling a dog's tail (behavior), the child
will be less likely to pull the dog's tail in the future.
4. Omission training occurs when an appetitive (desired) stimulus is prevented
or eliminated following a behavior. This procedure makes the behavior less likely
to recur. For example, if a child grabs a toy from her sibling (behavior) and her
mother denies the child access to television (appetitive stimulus) for a period of
time, the child will be less likely to grab toys in the future.
E. Types of reinforcers
1. Primary reinforcers are defined as biologically relevant natural events that are
capable of increasing the probability of behaviors that produce them. Water is a
primary reinforcer for a thirsty person.
2. A secondary (or conditioned) reinforcer is a neutral event that has taken on
the reinforcing properties of a primary reinforcer by being associated with it.
Money is a secondary reinforcer because people have learned that it can be
used to purchase a variety of primary reinforcers.
F. Chaining is an operant technique whereby the organism is required to
perform several different behaviors, in sequence, before the reward is
administered. Complex strings of behaviors can be maintained by the use of a
single reward at the end of the sequence.
G. Extinction occurs in operant conditioning when a behavior no longer
produces a reinforcer. Under these conditions the behavior eventually ceases.
Lesson 4: Operant Conditioning (continued)
I. Schedules of reinforcement involve the circumstances under which
reinforcements are delivered.
A. Continuous reinforcement
1. Every target response is rewarded
2. Produces behavior that extinguishes easily
B. Continuous reinforcement (or partial) reinforcement means that only some
correct responses are rewarded.
1. Fixed-ratio (FR)
a. A fixed number of target responses must be made before reward is given.
b. For example, a "But 10, get 1 free" offer maintains buying behavior on an FR
schedule.
c. This schedule produces a "pause and run" response pattern.
2. Variable-ratio (VR)
a. The number of target responses required for reward changes, and the
organism never knows how many responses are required for the next reward.
b. This is the gambler's schedule. For example, one never knows how many
lottery tickets must be bought before winning.
c. This schedule produces a consistent, high rate of responding that is very
resistant to extinction.
3. Fixed-interval (FI)
a. The first target response after a fixed interval of time has passed is rewarded.
b. For example, a student who studies every Thursday evening for the regularly
scheduled Friday quiz in his psychology class will be rewarded with a good
grade. The interval is one week.
c. Most of the responses on a FI schedule occur at the end of the interval and
this pattern of responding is called "scalloping."
4. Variable-interval (VI)
a. Similar to the FI schedule, except that the length of the interval of time
changes after each trial, and the organism has no way of knowing how long the
next interval will be.
b. For example, a student in a class where surprise quizzes are given on random
days is rewarded for studying on a VI schedule.
c. Responding on a VI schedule tends to be steady and at a moderate rate.
5. Typical response patterns for the intermittent schedules of reinforcement:
II. Aversive conditioning is training with stimuli not desired by the organism.
A. Punishment (see Lesson 3.II.D.3)
1. The use of punishment is controversial, and its effects vary widely.
2. When it works, effective punishment is often intense and immediate.
3. Punishment may produce only temporary suppression of the undesired
behavior or lead to aggressive behavior, among other things.
B. Negative reinforcement (see Lesson 3.II.D.2) includes two subtypes:
1. Escape occurs when a behavior terminates an aversive event. For example, a
person can escape a headache (aversive event) by taking an aspirin (behavior).
This negatively reinforces aspirin taking and makes this behavior more likely in
the future.
2. Avoidance occurs when a behavior happens in the presence of a signal that
informs the organism that an aversive event is likely. For example, a person can
avoid indigestion (aversive event) by taking an antacid (behavior) before eating a
spicy dinner (signal that indigestion is likely). This negatively reinforces antacid
taking and makes this behavior more likely in the future.
C. Learned helplessness, a phenomenon described by Martin Seligman
1. Defined as a decrease in responding that occurs after exposure to
uncontrollable aversive events. For example, dogs subjected to uncontrollable
electric shocks are later unable to learn a routine escape task.
2. Seligman believes learned helplessness helps explain things such as
depression and varying levels of job performance.
D. Practical uses of operant conditioning are numerous and include:
1. Educational strategies
2. Animal training
3. Behavior modification techniques
4. Token economies
5. Behavior therapy for psychological disorders
Lesson 5: Cognitive Learning and the Role of Biology and Culture in
Learning
I. Cognitive learning emphasizes the role of mental processes.
A. Insight learning, described by Wolfgang Kohler in The Mentality of Apes, is
the sudden awareness of the solution of a problem. For example, the chimp
Sultan seemed to suddenly grasp the need to use a short stick to reach a longer
stick which in turn could be used to reach some fruit.
B. Latent learning, described by Edward Tolman (1886-1959), is defined as
learning in the absence of apparent reward. For example, rats given an
opportunity to explore a maze will develop
a cognitive map, even when there is neither reward nor motivation for learning.
Later, when reward is available, rats that have had the opportunity to explore will
perform better than those that have not had that opportunity
C. Observational learning, described by Albert Bandura, is defined as learning
that takes place by watching another individual model the learning task. This has
important implications for humans, ranging from the potential negative effects of
violent television programming to the potential positive effects of providing
children with appropriate role models.
II. The role of biology in learning
A. Learning is adaptive in that it enhances an individual's ability to survive.
B. Biological constraints on learning including innate predispositions influence
the likelihood that conditioning can occur.
1. Rats are predisposed to learn taste aversions, as demonstrated by Garcia and
Koelling (1966).
2. Breland and Breland (1961) reported that it was difficult to train a pig (but not a
raccoon) to put a wooden disk into a piggy bank. Instinctive drift occurs when
an organism's instinctive behavior makes it easier or harder to establish a
learned response than it would be if the instinctive behavior were not present.
III. Culture also influences the kind of learning that can occur, and the
environment may limit learning opportunities.
Learning ids
1. Learning
2. Associative learning
3. Conditioning
4. Classical conditioning
5. Behaviorism
6. Unconditioned response (UCR)
7. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
8. Conditioned response (CR)
9. Conditioned stimulus (CS)
10. Acquisition
11. Extinction
12. Spontaneous recovery
13. Generalization
14. Discrimination
15. Operant conditioning
16. Respondent behavior
17. Operant behavior
18. Law of effect (Thorndike)
19. Operant chamber/Skinner box
20. Shaping
21. Reinforcer/Primary reinforcer
22. Conditioned
reinforces/secondary reinforcer
23. Continuous reinforcement
24. Fixed-ratio schedules
25. Variable-ratio schedules
26. Fixed-interval schedules
27. Variable-interval schedules
28. Punishment
29. Positive punishment
30. Negative punishment
31. Cognitive map
32. Latent learning
33. Overjustification effect
34. Observable (Social) learning
35. Modeling
36. Ivan Pavlov
37. John Garcia
38. John B. Watson
39. B.F. Skinner
40. Taste aversion
41. Albert Bandura
42. Prosocial behavior
Learning websites with practce
http://www.ar.cc.mn.us/biederman/cours
es/p1110/conditioning2.htm
http://www.polyxo.com/discretetrial/rein
forcement.html
http://www.abacon.com/psychsite/learni
ng_act.html
http://www.abacon.com/psychsite/learni
ng_act2.html
http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~mdlee/Tea
ching/OCexercise1.html
http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~mdlee/Tea
ching/OCexercise2.html
Learning
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
Associative learning
Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning
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Classical conditioning
o Ivan Pavlov
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
 Unconditioned response (UCR)
 Neutral stimulus (NS)
 Conditioned stimulus (CS)
 Conditioned response (CR)
o Acquisition
o Extinction
o Spontaneous recovery
o Generalization
o Discrimination
Extending Pavlov understanding
o Cognitive processes
o Biological processes
 John Garcia
 Taste aversion
Applications of classical conditioning
o John Watson
 Little Albert
Operant Conditioning
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Operant conditioning
o Respondent behavior
o B.F. Skinner
 Operant chamber
 Shaping
 Successive approximations
o Edward Thorndike
 Law of effect
Types of reinforcers
o Positive reinforcement
o Negative reinforcement
o Primary reinforcers
o Conditioned reinforcers/secondary reinforcers
Reinforcement schedules
o Continuous reinforcement
o Partial(Intermittent reinforcement
 Fixed – ratio schedules
 Variable- ratio schedules
 Fixed-interval schedules
 Variable –interval schedules
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Punishment
o Positive punishment
o Negative punishment
Cognitive map
Latent learning
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Learning by Observation

Observational learning
o Modeling
o Mirror neurons
o Albert Bandura
 Bobo doll experiment
 Prosocial behavior
 desensitized to violence
Classical Conditioning Recognition
Identify the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and
conditioned response in each of the following.
1.
While listening to a song on his car radio, a man accidentally crashed into a red car
in front of him. Thereafter, whenever he saw red cars, he experiences an anxiety
attack.
2.
Last spring whenever Fred kissed his wife Marilyn, he would get a shock. Since
that time, and even though he is no longer getting shocked, every time he puckers
up to kiss Marilyn, he involuntarily winces as if in pain.
3.
Tactless Tom yells at Emotional Ernie. As a result, Ernie's blood pressure
automatically rises. The next time that Ernie sees Tom, Ernie's blood pressure
rises.
4.
Brian was really looking forward to lunch. His mother had prepared a tuna salad
sandwich. Unfortunately, the mayonnaise she used had been left out too long and
was spoiled. Not long after eating, Brian felt extremely nauseated and had to rush
to the bathroom. Thereafter, the mere mention of a tuna sandwich would send
Brian scurrying to the bathroom with an upset stomach.
5.
Justin and Tyrone want to get a horse to involuntarily "go wild," making its heart
race and bucking. Every time the horse hears "whoa," they will kick the horse in
order to train him.
6.
The same goofs want to make a dog afraid of a cat by shocking the dog every time
he sees the cat.
7.
Captain hook had a nasty encounter with a crocodile in Never-Never Land. As a
result of the battle, he lost his hand to the croc, which also swallowed an alarm
clock. Fortunately for Hook, the loud ticking now warned him of the hungry
croc's approach. Unfortunately for Hook, any clock's ticking now ushers in a full
blown anxiety attack. (Be careful here)
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
For each of the following learning situations, indicate whether classical or operant
conditioning best applies. The, follow the appropriate instructions below:
Instructions
1. If you decide the situation is an example of classical conditioning, you should label
the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR.
2. If you decide the situation is an example of operant conditioning, you should decide
which of the following principles best fits: positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative punishment.
1. A very bright (mildly painful) light is turned on a rat. The rat has learned that he can
turn off the light by pressing a lever on the other side of his cage. As soon as the
light comes on, the rat suns across the room and presses the lever.
2. When a mother strokes her infant’s skin, the stroking creates pleasure responses in
the baby. After this goes on for many days, the baby begins to show pleasure
responses simply at the sight of her mother (even before being touched).
3. A patient in a mental hospital is very disruptive at mealtimes. She grabs food from
the plates of those sitting near her and tries to cram the food in her mouth. Because
this behavior of stealing food is very undesirable, a plan is developed whereby every
time the patient steals food from other plates, she is immediately taken to a room
without food.
4. Imagine you have a friend who keeps the temperature in her home so high that each
occasion on which you visit her you find yourself perspiring. The last time you
visited her, you noticed that you began to perspire and became uncomfortable as
soon as you saw her house (even before you got inside).
5. Fred leaves his clothes and toys all over his room. It seems that the only time he
cleans up his room is when his mother yells at him. When she yells at him, Fred
picks up his clothes and put away his toys.
Classical Conditioning
1. What is classical conditioning?
2. What famous scientist first studied classical conditioning? __________________
3. Define the following:
a. Acquisition ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________
b. Extinction ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________
c. Spontaneous recovery ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________
d. discrimination __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________
e. generalization __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________
4. A friend has learned to associate the sound of a dentist’s drill to a fearful reaction
because of a painful experience she had getting a root canal. In this example,
what is the:
a. UCS? _____________________________________________b. UCR? _____________________________________________
c. CS? _______________________________________________
d. CR? ______________________________________________
(Hint: replace the word “conditioned” with “learned” and it will be easier.)
5. Using the example in question 4, give an example of how each of the following
may occur:
a. extinction ___________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________
b. spontaneous recovery __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________
c. generalization ________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________
d. discrimination __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________
For each of the following, identify the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR:
6. A BMW commercial has lots of pretty people in it. People who watch the
commercial find the people pleasing to look at. With repeated viewing, they
begin to associate the car with the pleasant feeling.
a. UCS? _____________________________________________b. UCR? _____________________________________________
c. CS? _______________________________________________
d. CR? ______________________________________________
7. You get in a car accident and find you are afraid to get in a car.
a. UCS? _____________________________________________b. UCR? _____________________________________________
c. CS? _______________________________________________
d. CR? ______________________________________________
8. You go to a fancy restaurant and decide to try an appetizer you’ve never tried
before – escargot. After dinner, you go to a concert and get violently ill. From
then on, you can’t even look at snails without feeling sick.
a. UCS? _____________________________________________b. UCR? _____________________________________________
c. CS? _______________________________________________
d. CR? ______________________________________________
9. You are cruising on 440 at 75 mph when you see flashing police lights behind
you. You pull over and the policeman gives you a ticket. You get in insane
amounts of trouble from your parents. The next time you see flashing police
lights, your heart rate speeds up.
a. UCS? _____________________________________________b. UCR? _____________________________________________
c. CS? _______________________________________________
d. CR? ______________________________________________
10. Name one practical application of classical conditioning.