Dyslexia Assessment:
Looking at all the Angles
Region 2
Education Service Center
November 1, 2005
Brenda Taylor
State Dyslexia Consultant
Why Evaluate for
Dyslexia?
2
Dyslexia Handbook
Procedures:
Students enrolling in public schools
in Texas shall be assessed for
dyslexia and related disorders at
appropriate times (TEC
§38.003(a)).
3
Dyslexia Handbook
Procedures:
Appropriate time depends upon multiple factors
including:





Student’s reading performance
Reading difficulties
Poor response to additional reading instruction (if
placed in additional reading instruction)
Teachers’ input
Parents’ input
Appropriate time is early –
The earlier the better 4
Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004
Proposed §300.304(c)(6): In evaluating
each child with a disability under
§§300.304 – 300.306 (Evaluation
Procedures), the evaluation is sufficiently
comprehensive to identify all of the child’s
special education and related services
needs, whether or not commonly linked
to the disability category in which the child
has been classified.
5
Comment section:
Thus, proposed §300.304(c)(6) would
emphasize the direct link between
the evaluation and the IEP processes
and should ensure that the
evaluation is sufficiently
comprehensive to inform the
development of the child’s IEP.
6
Diagnosis of Dyslexia
by Regina Cicci,
IDA Journal PERSPECTIVES, Fall, 1989, Vol. 15 No. 4
“A good diagnosis is essential for a
child with dyslexia or any other kind
of learning disability. …a diagnosis
leads to a treatment plan or an
evaluation leads to recommendations
for teaching intervention.”
7
Defining Dyslexia:

Texas Education Code §38.003:
A disorder of constitutional origin
manifested by a difficulty in learning to
read, write, or spell, despite conventional
instruction, adequate intelligence, and
sociocultural opportunity. (pg. 1, 44)
8
2003 Definition of Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is
neurological in origin. It is characterized by
difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word
recognition and by poor spelling and decoding
abilities. These difficulties typically result from a
deficit in the phonological component of language
that is often unexpected in relation to other
cognitive abilities and the provision of effective
classroom instruction. Secondary consequences
may include problems in reading comprehension
and reduced reading experience that can impede
growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.
9
Dyslexia is a specific
learning disability
 In
contrast to the more general term
learning disabilities
 More defined in terms of cognitive
characteristics
 Reading disabilities affect at least
80% of the LD population – most
prevalent type of learning disability
10
…..that is neurological in origin.
 Converging
evidence using
functional brain imaging in
adult dyslexic readers show a
failure of left hemisphere
posterior brain systems to
function properly during
reading
11
Broca’s area
Inferior frontal
gyrus
(articulation/word
analysis)
Parieto-temporal
(word analysis)
Occipito-temporal
(word form)
Brain Systems for Reading
Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia, 2003
12
A neural signature for dyslexia:
Underactivation of neural systems in
the back of the brain
Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia, 2003
13
Dyslexic readers use compensatory
systems to read
Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia, 2003
14
Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia, 2003
Effective reading interventions
result in brain repair
15
These difficulties typically result from a deficit in
the phonological component of language.....
In order to read, a child has to:

develop the insight that spoken words
can be pulled apart into phonemes and

that the letters in a written word
represent these sounds.
16
Language Ladder
Discourse – language that goes beyond
the sentence level (i.e., passages and
paragraphs)
Syntax – methodology of joining words
to form meaningful sentences,
incorporating the rules of grammar
Semantics – knowledge of specific words and
their meanings
Phonology – refers to the sounds and sound
sequences that we process and/or produce
17
READING
Decoding
Comprehension
Word Identification
Meaning
DYSLEXIA
Language System
Discourse
Syntax
Semantics
Phonology
]
Reading
Comprehension
Decoding
18
....that is often unexpected in
relation to other cognitive
abilities and the provision of
effective classroom instruction.
19
Characteristics
It is characterized by:
 Difficulties with accurate and/or fluent
word recognition

Poor spelling

Poor decoding abilities
20
Outcomes
Secondary consequences may include:

Problems in reading comprehension

Reduced reading experience that can
impede growth of vocabulary and
background knowledge.
21
Research: The Connecticut
Longitudinal Study

Drs. Bennett and Sally Shaywitz

24 randomly chosen Connecticut public
schools during 1983-1984 school year

445 children enrolled in study who have
been regularly monitored
22
Findings:

There is an unbroken continuum of
reading ability and reading disability –
referred to as a dimensional model.

Reading difficulties affect approximately
one child in five.

No significant difference in prevalence of
reading disabilities for boys and girls
23

Dyslexia is not only common, but it is
persistent – it does not represent a
temporary lag in reading development.

If a child is dyslexic early in school, that
child will continue to experience reading
problems unless he is provided with a
scientifically based, proven intervention.

Phonemic awareness is the best predictor
of the ability to read words accurately and
quickly.
24
Assessment: Understanding the Process

Districts must establish written
procedures

Procedures begin when students
continue to struggle with one or
more components or reading
25
Data Gathering

Must collect additional information about
the student

Information used to:

Evaluate the student’s academic progress

Determine actions needed for student’s
improved academic performance
26
Data Gathering





Vision/hearing
Teacher reports
Basal series reading
assessments
Accommodations/
Modifications
(classroom teacher)
Academic progress
reports






Samples of school
work
Parent conferences
Testing for LEP
Speech/language
(referral process)
K-2 reading
instrument
State assessment
results
27
Data Gathering

Information:

About the student

From student’s cumulative folder

Teacher’s observations/accommodations

Parent
28
Data Gathering

Example:



Alice/5th grade student
Attended a transitional program between
kindergarten and first grade
First grade: parent conference
documentation indicating difficulties with
phonics and reading; TPRI - SD in 3 out of
4 phonemic awareness skills
Second grade: TPRI indicates SD in the
majority of areas assessed
29
Data Gathering: Example

Teacher information:



Difficulty with aspects of reading
comprehension
Listening comprehension stronger
than reading comprehension
Difficulty with spelling
30
Data Gathering: Example

Parent information:


Family history for reading difficulties
Student has received private tutoring
during the summers
31
Data Gathering

District may recommend for
assessment for dyslexia IF:

Poor performance in reading
UNEXPECTED for student’s
age/grade

Characteristics of dyslexia
32
Procedures for Assessment
Notify parents or guardians of proposal to
assess student for dyslexia (§504)
 Inform parents or guardians of their rights
under §504
 Obtain parent permission to assess the
student for dyslexia; and
 Administer measures only by individuals
/professionals who are trained in
assessment to evaluate students for
dyslexia and related disorders (19 TAC
§74.28)

33
Dyslexia Handbook:
Characteristics

Difficulty reading single words in isolation;

Difficulty accurately decoding nonsense or
unfamiliar words;

Slow, inaccurate, or labored oral reading
(lack of reading fluency); and/or

Difficulty with learning to spell
34
Difficulties are the result of:

Difficulty with the development of
phonological awareness

Difficulty learning the names of letters and
their associated sounds

Difficulty with phonological memory

Difficulty with rapid naming
35
Phonological Awareness
Rhyming/alliteration
Words in a sentence
Syllable
Onset-Rime
Phonemes
Isolation
Blending
Segmentation
Deletion
Addition
Substitution
36
Rapid Naming

Effective retrieval of phonological
information from memory

Has been found as another core deficit
in development dyslexia

Predictive of reading fluency and rate

Tested on timed tasks
37
Sample of a rapid naming task:
3
7
5
8
4
3
7
5
8
5
9
8
4
3
5
9
8
4
7
4
9
5
3
7
4
9
5
4
5
3
9
7
4
5
3
9
38
Students who have double
deficits – that is, deficits in
both rapid naming and
phonological awareness – have
the most pronounced reading
impairments and are the most
resistant to intervention.
39
Phonological Memory

Refers to coding information phonologically for
temporary storage in working or short-term
memory

Phonological coding in working memory is
potentially more useful when attempting to
decode new words, particularly words that are
long enough to decode bit by bit, as a means of
storing intermediate sounds

Phonological memory deficits can constrain the
ability to learn new written and spoken
vocabulary
40
Domains to Assess
Reading single words in isolation
 Word decoding (real and nonwords)
 Phonological awareness
 Letter knowledge (name and associated
sound)
 Rapid naming
 Fluency/rate and accuracy
 Reading comprehension
 spelling

41
Assessment: Instruments
Validated for specific purpose for which
they are used
 Tailored to assess specific areas of
educational need; not to provide a
single general intelligence quotient
 Selected and administered so results
accurately reflect student’s aptitude or
achievement level

42
Assessment: Instruments

Include multiple measures of a
student’s reading abilities

Be administered by trained
personnel and in conformance with
the instructions provided by the
producer of the evaluation materials
(§504)
43
Possible Instruments

Reading single words in isolation






Wide Range Achievement Test 3 (WRAT-3)
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test – 2nd Edition
(WIAT-II)
Word Reading
Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJIII)
Letter-Word Identification
Woodcock Reading Mastery Test – Revised (WRMTR)
Letter-Word Identification
Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement-2nd
Edition (KTEA-II)
Letter and Word Reading
Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities – 3rd
Edition (ITPA-3)
Sight Decoding
NOTE: This is not an all inclusive, approved or recommended list
44
Possible Instruments

Word Decoding






WIAT-II
Pseudoword Decoding
WJ-III & WRMT-R Word Attack
KTEA-II
Nonsense Word Decoding
Phonological Awareness Test (PAT)
Decoding Skills Test
(ITPA-3)
Sound Decoding
NOTE: This is not an all inclusive, approved or recommended list
45
Possible Instruments

Phonological Awareness





Phonological Awareness Test (PAT)
Comprehensive Test of Phonological
Processing (CTOPP)
Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization
Test – 3rd Edition (LAC-3)
ITPA-3
Sound Deletion/Phonology
Composite
Test of Auditory Analysis Skills
NOTE: This is not an all inclusive, approved or recommended list
46
Possible Instruments

Letter Knowledge



Informal:
alphabet; identify letter
names and associated sound
WRMT-R
Letter Identification and
Supplementary Letter Checklist
PAT
Graphemes Subtest
NOTE: This is not an all inclusive, approved or recommended list
47
Possible Instruments

Rapid Naming




CTOPP
KTEA-II
Rapid Automatized Naming
Rapid Automatized Naming and Rapid
Alternating Stimulus Tests (RAN/RAS)
WJ-III
Rapid Picture Naming
NOTE: This is not an all inclusive, approved or recommended list
48
Possible Instruments

Fluency/Rate and Accuracy:




Gray Oral Reading Test – 4th Edition
(GORT-4)
WJ-III
Reading Fluency
Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE)
KTEA-II
Timed Word Recognition
and Timed Nonsense Word Decoding
NOTE: This is not an all inclusive, approved or recommended list
49
Possible Instruments

Reading Comprehension:






WIAT-II
Reading Comprehension
WJ-III & WRMT-R Passage
Comprehension
KTEA-II
Reading Comprehension
GORT-4
Comprehension
Gray Silent Reading Test (GSRT)
ITPA-3 Sentence Sequencing
NOTE: This is not an all inclusive, approved or recommended list
50
Possible Instruments

Spelling:






WRAT-3
WIAT-II
WJ-III
Spelling
Spelling, Spelling of
Sounds
Test of Written Spelling – 4th Edition
(TWS-4)
KTEA-II
Spelling
ITPA-3
Sight Spelling, Sound
Spelling
NOTE: This is not an all inclusive, approved or recommended list
51
Orthographic Processing:
Orthography refers to how spoken words
are represented in written language.
Orthographic awareness is the
ability to perceive and recall letters,
letter strings, and words.
With repeated encounters, the reader builds
an orthographic memory (i.e., memory
for patterns of written language) of words
so that eventually he or she instantly
recognizes the words without having to
sound them out.
52
Test for Orthographic
Processing:

Process Assessment of the Learner: Test
Battery for Reading and Writing (PAL)
 Subtests:
 Receptive Coding - Child’s ability to
code written words into short-term
memory
 Word
Choice – Representation of
written words in long-term memory
Test published by Psychological Corporation
53
Receptive Coding
good
54
food
55
good
56
f
57
well
58
le
59
telescope
60
sc
61
Word Choice
was
wuz
whas
62
Simple View of Reading:
Listening Comprehension
Word Reading Skills
Good
Poor
Poor
Good
Dyslexia
Other
Language-learning
deficit
Hyperlexia
Children vary on a continuum of reading ability
63
Differential Diagnosis
Good evidence for three forms of disability
in reading that
 co-occur and
 occur in isolation
1.
2.
3.
Word recognition
Comprehension
Fluency
Dr. Jack Fletcher, 9-03
64
Word Recognition Subgroup
Most common and best understood form
of learning disability (Dyslexia)
 Primary deficit in the phonological
component of language
 Reading impairment at the level of
single-word decoding
 Other components of language system
intact (e.g., syntax, semantics)

Dr. Sally Shaywitz, 1998
65
Reading Comprehension Subgroup
Most children with word level disorders
have varying degrees of difficulty with
comprehension
 Subset with intact word recognition and
deficient comprehension estimated as high
as 5-10%
 More apparent in older students
 Basis is in oral language development

66
Reading Comprehension Subgroup

Weaknesses:

Vocabulary and understanding of syntax

Inferencing
 Text integration
 Working memory
 Metacognitive skills

Parallel comprehension problems observed at
the level of discourse
67
Reading Fluency Subgroup

Rate deficit in children who are accurate
word readers

Related to rapid automatized naming

Dissociations of accuracy and speed
commonly observed in children with ADHD
as well as brain injury.
68
Language-Learning Disability/Deficit

Primary deficit involves all aspects of
language, both phonologic and semanticsyntactic

Reading difficulty at the level of both
decoding and comprehension

Prominent language difficulties
Dr. Sally Shaywitz, 1998
69
Hyperlexia
Early intense interest in words and letters
 Exceptional word-recognition ability,
apparent by the age of five years
 Very poor comprehension
 Disordered language development,
especially affecting aural comprehension
 Deficits in reasoning and abstract
problem-solving
 Behavioral atypicalities affecting
interpersonal relationships

Dr. Sally Shaywitz, 1998
70
IMPORTANT
Tests Do Not Evaluate
People Do
Knowledge of Evaluator(s) &
Team of Knowledgeable
Persons
Is More Important
Than
The Tools Used
71
Team/Committee of
Knowledgeable Persons

Knowledgeable about






The student being assessed;
Reading;
Dyslexia and related disorders;
District, state, and federal guidelines for
assessment;
The assessments used; and
The meaning of the collected data
72
Team/Committee of Knowledgeable
Persons Determines Dyslexia
Observations of teacher, district staff,
and/or parent
 Data Gathered – including



Classroom inventories & measures
Information from students cumulative folder
Results of assessments administered
 All data related to the student’s
educational needs

73
Team/Committee Must Consider

Student’s UNEXPECTED lack of appropriate
academic progress;

Student exhibiting characteristics
associated with dyslexia;

Student having adequate intelligence, the
ability to learn
74
Team/Committee Must Consider

Student having received conventional
instruction;

Lack of progress not due to sociocultural
factors such as language differences,
inconsistent attendance, and lack of
experiential background.
75
State Law Requires

Procedures for identifying a student with
dyslexia

Access to services of a teacher trained in
dyslexia and related services

Provide “treatment” – teaching of any
student determined to have dyslexia
TEC 38.003 & TAC 74.28
76
Section 504

Assessment/Identification

Interventions/Placement

Procedural right for appeal

Periodic Re-evaluation
77
Special Education

A student with dyslexia MAY be served
under IDEA

If the student meets the definition of
“disabled” under IDEA [dyslexia in and of
itself is not a disability condition under
IDEA]
78
Special Education

If placed in special education the ARD
Committee must include appropriate reading
instruction on the student’s IEP [descriptors listed
in the Dyslexia Handbook]

Teachers who provide appropriate instruction for
students with dyslexia must be trained in
instructional strategies that utilize individualized,
intensive, multisensory, phonetic methods and a
variety of writing and spelling components (19
TAC §74.28)
79
CASE STUDIES
80
Case Study: Alice/5th Grader
CTOPP:
Phonological Awareness: 85
Phonological Memory:
103
Rapid Naming:
91
Alphabet:
GORT-4:
Rate:
6
Accuracy:
5
Fluency:
4
Comprehension 12
No difficulty
Consonant sounds:
19/21
Short-vowel sounds:
1/5
WIAT-II:
Listening Comprehension
Word Reading:
Reading Comprehension
Pseudoword Reading
Spelling
Dyslexic?
105
77
77
67
83
Yes
81
Case study: Scott/4th grade
CTOPP:
Phonological Awareness: 85
Phonological Memory:
97
Rapid Naming:
76
GORT-4
Alphabet: no difficulty
Rate:
4
Accuracy:
5
Fluency:
3
Consonant sounds: 19/21
Short-vowel sounds: 4/5
OWLS: Listening Comprehension: 104
Dyslexic?
WIAT-II:
Word Reading:
73
Reading Comprehension
98
Pseudoword Reading
89
Spelling
75
Yes
82
Case study: Josh/5th grade
CTOPP:
Phonological Awareness: 100
Phonological Memory:
88
Rapid Naming:
88
GORT-4
Alphabet: no difficulty
Rate:
12
Accuracy:
11
Fluency:
11
Consonant sounds: 20/21
Short-vowel sounds: 2/5
Dyslexic?
WIAT-II:
Listening Comprehension 107
Word Reading:
103
Reading Comprehension
118
Pseudoword Reading
101
Spelling
102
No
83
Case study: Kathy/2nd grade
CTOPP:
Phonological Memory:
Rapid Naming:
97
88
Alphabet: no difficulty
Consonant sounds: 19/21
WIAT-II:
Reading Comprehension
94
ITPA-3
Short-vowel sounds: 5/5
Process of the Learner (PAL)
Semantics
121
Receptive Coding – Deficient
Grammar
118
Word Choice - Deficient
Phonology
109
Comprehension
85
Word Identification
82
Spelling
97
Sight-Symbol Processing
85
Sound-Symbol Processing
94
Dyslexic?
Yes; characteristics
of dyslexia
84
Case study: Betty/5th grade
CTOPP:
Phonological Awareness:
73
Phonological Memory:
76
Rapid Naming: unable to obtain
Alphabet: unable to recite or write
ITPA-3
Short-vowel sounds: 5/5
Semantics
88
Grammar
91
Phonology
76
Comprehension
73
Word Identification
73
Spelling
76
Sight-Symbol Processing
73
Sound-Symbol Processing
76
Spoken Language Composite
83
Naming lower case letter: 25/26
Consonant sounds:
18/21
WIAT-II:
Reading Comprehension 86
Word Reading
78
Pseudoword Decoding
82
Spelling
80
WISC-III
Verbal Comprehension Index 85
Full Scale IQ
89
Dyslexic?
No
85
Dyslexia
• The differences are personal
• The diagnosis is clinical
• The treatment is educational
• The understanding is scientific
The Many Faces of Dyslexia by
Margaret Rawson
86