History teaching
and
Intergroup relations:
The case of Cyprus
Charis Psaltis
Assistant Professor of Social & Developmental
Psychology
Department of Psychology
University of Cyprus
cpsaltis@ucy.ac.cy
Knowledge and Communication in a
globalised world of plurality and diversity
• An understanding of processes of communication
between knowledge systems is imperatave in the 21st
century (Jovchelovitch, 2007)
• Knowledge is a plastic and plural phenomenon
originating in subjective, intersubjective and
objective worlds which it seeks to represent
• Communication with and representation of OTHER
crucial importance for any form of knowledge
construction whether it concerns the present, the
future or the past (hence history).
Post-conflict societies as a specific context for
understanding alterity
Group B
Group A
•Stereotypes
•Prejudice
•Competition
•Outgroup
homogeneity
•Accentuation of
differences
Two ways to approach teaching and
learning of history
• David Lowenthal (1998). The heritage
crusades and the spoils of history
Heritage vs History
Heritage
• deliberately omits aspects of the
past
• thrives on ignorance and error
• its nurturing virtue is bias
• its essential purpose prejudiced
pride
• transmits exclusive myths of
origin and continuity
• endows a select group with
prestige and common purpose
• is held as ‘a dogma of roots and
origins
• must be accepted on faith
• the past is used as a weapon
vs
History
• is disinterested and universal
• Bias is a vice that history
struggles to eliminate
• History conforms to accepted
tenets of evidence
• is subject to debate
• it is always altered by time and
hindsight
• learning how to question a
historical account
• to become aware of the
evidentiary base upon which it
rests
• assess it in relation to contrasting
accounts
“If historians, curriculum experts, textbook writers
and school authorities make all the decisions about
the right version of the past, then the students only
job is to absorb it. What started out as contentious,
debate-ridden investigation about truth, right and
meaning in the past and present ends up before the
students as a catechism to be memorised…historical
knowledge appears as something fixed by authority
rather than subject to investigation, debate and its
own system of warrants”.
Seixas (2000, p. 23)
Important questions
• What is teaching? It implies a social relation between
a pupil and another person either physically or
symbolically present and it is thus a form of social
influence.
• It is first of all a form of social interaction, contact,
communication between an adult and a child or
children between them constrained by a series of
social psychological factors
• What forms can this social relation and
communication take?
• How are different forms of social relations and
communication related to heritage and history?
Two forms of social relations (Piaget, 1932)
Relations of
constraint
vs
cooperation
• one participant holds more
power than the other
• asymmetrical relationship
• unilateral respect
• children’s thinking is limited by
a dominant influence
• social transmission
• Transmission of
belief/dogma/myth
• Supression of cognitive and
ethical development
• power is more evenly
distributed
• symmetrical relationship
• mutual respect
• each partner has the freedom
to project their own thoughts,
consider the positions of
others, and defend their own
point of view (real dialogue)
• Norm of reciprocity
• Construction of knowledge
• Promotion of cognitive and
ethical development
Theoretical
Framework:
Social
Education
Approaches
(Shemilt
in Shemilt & Perikleous,
2011, p.87)
Social Representations: Avoiding the reification
of culture
• Social Representations furnish varying positions of identity
(Duveen,2007; Psaltis & Duveen, 2006,2007;
Psaltis,2011,2012,in press).
• Narratives as organising principles of:
• Past-Present-Future transition
– Past-Collective Memory
– Present-Quality of Intergroup relations (Trust, forgiveness,
perspective taking, attitudes)
– Future- Ideal solution of the Cyprus issue
The iceberg mataphor (Duveen & Lloyd, 1990)
Attitudes
towards
others
Structure/Logic
•Distrust
•Prejudice
•Absence of
forgiveness
•Lack of
perspective taking
•Realistic,
Symbolic, Group
esteem threats
•IG anxiety
•Forms of
identification
•Representations
of history/past
Research across the divide
Association for Historical Dialogue and Research
Funded by the UNDP-ACT
1. perceptions of the
current history
curriculum and
textbooks
2. methods of
teaching used
6. qualifications and
training needs
5. Representations of the
recent history of Cyprus
and attributions of blame
3. epistemology
towards history
4. contact and
attitudes towards
members of the outgroup
Methodology
Questionnaire survey:
• We sampled a total of 400 Greek Cypriot and 119 Turkish
Cypriot primary and secondary school history teachers.
• The study comprises of a quantitative questionnaire
survey in which face-to-face questionnaire
administration covers a nationally representative sample
of history educators.
• Questionnaire prepared by group of GC and TC educators,
researchers and academics
• Translated and back translated Greek/Turkish/English
• Interviews conducted in the mothertoungue of educators, by
professional interviewees
Scale
Items
GC TC
alph alp
a
ha
Curriculum for
reconciliation
•I believe that in a united Cyprus there should be a common history curriculum for
Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot students
•One of the main objectives of the history curriculum should be to enhance a common
identity which will include Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots
•One of the main objectives of the history curriculum should be to promote peace
among people
0.71
0.75
Curriculum for
historical
thinking
•One of the main objectives of the history curriculum should be to enhance critical
thinking
•One of the main objectives of history curriculum should be to develop a multiperspective approach to history
•One of the main aims of the history curriculum should be the development of
historical thought (concepts and skills related to how we learn about the past)
0.60
0.80
Current
textbooks
pluralistic
•History textbooks use a satisfactory amount of sources
•History textbooks are ethnocentric (reversed)
•History textbooks provide the necessary material and activities for the development
of historical thought (concepts and skills related to how we learn about the past)
•History textbooks set constrains to the way I teach history (reversed)
•History textbooks present a monoperspectival narrative (reversed)
•Women are presented adequately in history textbooks
•Children are adequately presented in history textbooks
•Other socio-cultural groups are presented adequately in history textbooks.
0.68
0.74
Reported
emphasis on
historical
thinking
•In my teaching I use activities which aim to develop the historical thought of my
students (concepts and skills related to how we learn about the past)
•I encourage my students to pay attention to the historical context when reading a
source
• I always ask my students to support their reasoning with evidence
0.60
0.61
Scale
Items
GC
alph
a
TC
alp
ha
Relativism
•Historical truth is essentially a matter of opinion
•It is not possible to argue that one specific interpretation of History is more valid
than another since they are always subjective
•Since there is no way to know what really happened in the past, people can believe
in whatever story they choose
0.63
0.56
Constructivism
•In studying historical texts it is important to ask questions about validity of
author’s arguments
•It is possible for one interpretation to be more valid than another
•Historical knowledge is open to review as it is subjected to new findings and new
evidence
0.67
0.66
Quantity of
contact
How much contact do you actually have with members of the other community
under the following conditions (not just seeing them but actually talking to them)?
1) At work,
2) In bi-communal meetings,
3) In the neighbourhood where you live,
4) in the South,
5) in the North
0.80
0.86
Quality of contact
When you meet with members of the other community how do you find the contact?
1) In cooperative spirit,
2) Positive,
3) Based on mutual respect
0.94
0.86
Attitude towards
out-group
(single item)
The following questions concern your feelings towards different groups in general.
Please rate each group on a thermometer that that runs from zero (0) to one
hundred (100) degrees.
How do you feel towards Greek/Turkish Cypriots in general?
0
10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100°
Scale
Items
GC
alpha
TC
alpha
Turco- centrism /
Helleno-centrism
•I am characterized by the Turkish/Greek cultural origin
•Islam/Orthodoxy is an indispensable part of our national self
•I consider Turkey/Greece as the Motherland
0.71
0.76
Criticise Turkey
and foreign powers
for Cyprus problem
•In 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus to achieve partition of the island
•In 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus in order to protect the Turkish Cypriots
(reversed)
•The Cyprus problem is one created by the application of NATO plots in
Cypriot issues
•The establishment in the north of the ‘TRNC’ impeded the solution of the
Cyprus problem
•TMT arose out of the need of Turkish Cypriots to protect themselves
(reversed)
•The British colonial policy of divide and rule led to the first seeds of
hostility between the two communities of Cyprus
0.65
0.66
Communal
Identification
•In general, I’m happy to be a GC/TC
•I am proud to be a GC/TC
•Being a GC/TC is an important part of how I see myself
•Being a GC/TC is the most important part of who I am
•I often wish that I wasn’t a GC/TC (reversed)
•Being a GC/TC is not an important part of my identity (reversed)
0.82
0.89
Continuity
•The traditions of TCs/GCs have passed on from generation to generation
•Important moments in Cypriot history are closely interconnected with each
other
•TCs/GCs will always be characterized by specific traditions and beliefs
•TCs/GCs have preserved their values throughout the centuries
0.66
0.78
Findings
• TC educators (of both levels of education) were more
supportive of a curriculum that would promote
reconciliation between the two communities). They
also had more contact and of better quality with GCs.
More favourable in-group norms on relating with
other community compared to GCs.
• On pedagogically related questions: Interaction
effects of level of education x community. A usual
pattern: TCs of secodnary scored higher than GCs of
both levels. TC of primary lower scores compared to
the other 3 groups.
Significant Variation within each
community
GC-C1: Pro-TCs &
Reconciliation/ Highly for
Historical Thinking
(42.2% of sample)
GC-C2: Ambivalent to TCs &
History for
Reconciliation/Moderately for
Historical thinking
(27.8% of sample)
GC-C3: Ambivalent and
isolated from TCs Ambivalent
towards History for
Reconciliation/ Hellenocentric/
Highly for Historical Thinking
(30.0% of sample)
Positive attitude towards TCs b
(7.04/10)
Quantity of Contact c (1.80/5)
Communal Identification as GC
a (3.63/5)
Helleno-centrism a (3.66/5)
Criticising Turkey and Foreign
powers vs GCs b (3.93/5)
Essentialised continuity of
groupa (3.92)
Positive attitude towards TCs a
(5.04/10)
Quantity of Contact b (1.34/5)
Communal Identification as GC b
(3.91/5)
Helleno-centrism b (4.01/5)
Criticising Turkey and Foreign
powers vs GCsa (3.79/5)
Essentialised continuity of groupa
(3.92)
Positive attitude towards TCs a
(4.93/10)
Quantity of Contact a (1.14/5)
Communal Identification as GC c
(4.55/5)
Helleno-centrism c (4.63/5)
Criticising Turkey and Foreign
powers vs GCs c (4.16/5)
Essentialised continuity of group b
(4,32)
Curriculum for Reconciliationb
(4.22/5)
Curriculum for Historical
Thinking b (4.87/5)
Textbooks Pluralistic a (2.55/5)
Self-reported use of historical
thinking methods b (4.46/5)
Curriculum for Reconciliationa
(3.45/5)
Curriculum for Historical
Thinking a (4.27/5)
Textbooks Pluralistic b (2.86/5)
Self-reported use of historical
thinking methods a (4.04/5)
Curriculum for Reconciliationa
(3.47/5)
Curriculum for Historical
Thinking b (4.83/5)
Textbooks Pluralistic a (2.67/5)
Self-reported use of historical
thinking methods c (4.60/5)
Relativism b (3.26/5)
Constructivism b (4.19/5)
Relativism a (2.72/5)
Constructivism a (3.71/5)
Relativism b (3.15/5)
Constructivism c (4.44/5)
TC-C1: Pro-GC/Cypriocentric/Highly for TC-C2: Ambivalent to negative towards
historical Thinking
GCs/
/Ambivalent
to
History
for
(39.5% of sample)
reconciliation/Turkocentric/Moderate
to
high for historical thinking
(60.5% of sample)
Positive attitude towards GCsb (6.87/10)
Quantity of Contacta (2.14/5)
Communal Identification as TCa (3.75/5)
Turko-centrisma (2.37/5)
Criticising Turkey and foreign powers vs GCsb
(2.99/5)
Essentialised continuity of groupb (3,73)
Positive attitude towards GCsa (4.46/10)
Quantity of Contacta (2.34/5)
Communal Identification as TCb (4.18/5)
Turko-centrismb (3.56/5)
Criticising Turkey and foreign powers vs GCsa
(2.65/5)
Essentialised continuity of groupa (3,47)
Curriculum for Reconciliationb (4.63/5)
Curriculum for Historical Skillsb (4.87/5)
Textbooks Pluralistica (2.35/5)
Self-reported use of historical thinking methods
b (4.26/5)
Curriculum for Reconciliationa (3.56/5)
Curriculum for Historical Skillsa (4.29/5)
Textbooks Pluralisticb (3.07/5)
Self-reported use of historical thinking methods
a (3.89/5)
Relativisma (3.53/5)
Constructivismb (4.59/5)
Relativisma (3.27/5)
Constructivisma (4.04/5)
Stance on the use of contradictory
sources in history teaching
• GC-C2: Less agreement with
“The use of contradictory sources helps students learn
how to work with conflicting evidence”
Compared to GC-C1 and GC-C2
• TC-C2: Less agreement with
“The use of contradictory sources helps students learn
how to work with conflicting evidence”
compared to TC-C1
Can Intergroup Contact help the cultivation
of critical thinking and history teaching
skills?
• Inter-group contact: crucial role for the
promotion of tolerance, reduction of
prejudice and reconciliation
• How can it be used to promote critical
thinking and historical skills also?
• What is Critical thinking anyway?
What teaching methods can be used to promote the
epistemology and historical skills and how do we
turn diversity in our classroom into a resource?
1. Inter-group Contact
2. Cooperative methods
1. Summary of findings of contact project
Study
Age
Survey
Representative
sample (Q)
2007
N
Predictors
Mediators
Outcomes
Moderators
18-65 1656
Contact
(D,E)
Threats (S,
R)
Attitudes
(TCs)
Open
Check.
GCs/TCs
Cypriocentr./
Hellenocentr.
Age
Pyla Repr.S (Q)
2008
18+
238
Contact
(Vill./Shops/
Friends)
Attitudes
Trust
Op.Checkp.
Perc. Status
asymm.(p,so
c,economic)
El.& High School
(Q) Longit. 2007
10-15 GC
171
Friendships
Stereotypes
Uni. Students (Q)
2006
18-25 GC
390
Friendship
IG Anxiety
(p)-LH
Attitudes TCs
/Immigr.
Uni. Students (Q)
2009
18-25 GC
300
Q. Contact
N.Stereot.
Attitudes
-TCs
Teachers
(Q) 2009
23+
Q. Contact
N.Stereot.
Attitudes
TCs/T/Imm.
Students
(Exp.) 2008-2009
18-28 GC
52
GC
165
Contact
(D*,E)
Attitudes
TCs/T/Imm
Cypriocent./
Hellenocentri
sm
Att.Strength
IG Anxiety
Self Discl.
Summary of findings of contact project
AHDR-Oxford Centre for the Study of Intergroup Conflict
Study
Age
N
Predictors
Mediators
Outcomes
Moderators
3-wave
longitudinal
research
2010-2011
18+
2000
Contact
Threats (S,
R)
Intergroup
Anxiety
Attitudes
Trust
Action
tendencies
GCs/TCs
Cypriocentr./
Hellenocentr.
Age
Former
Inhabitants of
Mixed Villages
2010
42+
Threats (S,
R)
Intergroup
Anxiety
Attitudes
Trust
Op.Checkp.
Perc. Status
asymm.(p,so
c,economic)
Threats (S,
R)
Intergroup
Anxiety
Attitudes
Trust
Action
tendencies
GCs/TCs
Cypriocentr./
Hellenocentr
Representat
ions of
history
2000
Contact
(Vill./Shops/
Friends)
Representat
ions of
history
Educators
2010
22+
519
Contact
Representat
ions of
History
2. Crucial Role of Forms of
communication/Conversation types
in the teaching process
Psaltis & Duveen (2006,2007)
1.
2.
3.
No-Resistance: Novice does not resist even once the expert’s
arguments nor s/he gives an argument in favour of his/her nonexpert position.
Resistance : The novice at least once resists the expert’s
argument or provides a support for his or her argument.
Explicit recognition: The novice verbalises an indication that
s/he understood the arguments provided by the conserver by
expressions like Agh!!! I see!!!, I understand!!!, or even giving an
expert argument him/herself thus reversing the original roles
Discussion
• Productive forms of dialogue (that allow the expression
of different points of view and recognition as
autonomous thinking subjects) get internalised as an
apearing as progress in post-tests. Depending on the
depth/form of dialogue we can talk of internalisation
(superficial) or interiorisation (more depth) (Psaltis,
Duveen & Perret-Clermont, 2009).
• Need to explore the social and relational conditions
that constrain or facilitate the establishment of each
type. Forms of asymmetry: knowledge, Language,
Gender, Social Class, Popularity, Academic reputation.
• Participation is key-How various sources of asymmetry
converge or diverge on one pupil is crucial.
Thank you