Advanced Placement Language and Composition 2015-2016
Student Packet—Keep this packet all year!
In this course you will enhance your ability to think logically and write persuasively by learning the foundations of
rhetoric and the skills of writing argumentation. As AP Language and Composition students, you should first
understand the reading-writing connection; that is, you must think of all texts you read as the writing of an author.
You should not see a novel simply as a book to read but as a finished and polished piece of writing. You should
speculate, for example, on the reasons William Faulkner chose to write “A Rose for Emily” with suspended detail
and non-chronological ordering of events or why Abraham Lincoln wrote “Four score and seven years ago” rather
than simply “eighty-seven years ago.” You should examine texts carefully to determine the intent of the writers.
Our ongoing focus in the study of rhetoric will be on how a writer uses language—diction, detail, image, tone,
syntax, logical ordering, juxtaposition, or contrast, for example—to achieve a specific purpose.
Rhetoric refers to the art of using words to persuade in writing or speaking. All types of writing—fiction,
nonfiction, drama, and poetry—seek to persuade, and rhetoricians study these genres for their persuasive qualities.
In our classroom you will study logic, the methods of ascertaining and preserving truth. You will learn how to
explore causal relationships, proving conclusions with sound logic and clear reasoning. You will learn to deliberate
issues carefully and to avoid hasty writing on a visceral level. You need to be able to analyze an assertion,
determine its validity, prepare an appropriate response, and communicate that spoken or written response with
clarity.
RHETORICAL THEORY
Argument: Argument is used here as a term to designate the entire persuasive essay. Writing argumentative
essays is a complex process that addresses a targeted audience with a specific purpose and requires reasoning, a
kind of controlled thinking in which the student comes to accept or reject an idea based on its validity and truth. An
error in reasoning, or a logical fallacy, will weaken an argument and diminish the credibility of the writer. Effective
arguments involve key issues, anticipated objections, gathered support, and logical reasoning to sway the thinking
or behavior of the audience. An effective argument is a well-contrived presentation of ideas that takes a stand about
an issue—often called the thesis statement or claim—and supports that thesis statement with various evidence or
premises.
In writing arguments, you will learn to consciously structure your writing, using logical lines of reasoning such as
order of importance, chain of reasoning, cause and effect, rebuttal, concession/refutation, and process analysis.
Writers of arguments will also use the various modes of discourse to support their claims with a combination of both
logical (logos) and emotional (pathos) evidence to establish their credibility as writers or their ethical appeal (ethos).
The argument’s inference is the relationship between the premises and a conclusion, the final statement, which
writers seek to prove as true and valid based on their premises, which also are assumed to be true.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
logos (message)
context/occasion
kairos (the right moment,
opportune time)
pathos (audience)
ethos (speaker)
Purpose: Purpose is the specific reason or reasons for the writing. It conveys what the readers have to gain by
reading the essay. Purpose is the objective or the goal that the writer wishes to establish.
The writer’s purpose might be to…
 Support a cause
 Promote a change
 Refute a theory
 Stimulate interest
 Win agreement
 Arouse sympathy
 Provoke anger
Audience: The audience is the writer’s targeted reader or readers. The relationship between the writer and the
audience is critical. You should consider the kind of information, language, and overall approach that will appeal to
a specific audience. Here are some questions you can ask yourself during the prewriting stage of your
argumentative essays.
 Who exactly is the audience?
 What do they know?
 What do they believe?
 What do they expect?
 How will my audience disagree with me?
 What will they want me to address or answer?
 How can I—or should I—use jargon?
 Should I use language that is formal, factual, and objective, or familiar, anecdotal, and personal?
Rhetorical Strategies: Appeals of Logic, Emotion, and Ethics
Logical Appeals (logos):
Incorporate inductive reasoning
Use of deductive reasoning
Create a syllogism
Cite traditional culture
Cite commonly held beliefs
Allude to history, the Bible, great literature, or mythology
Manipulate the style
Employ various modes of discourse for specific effects
Provide testimony
Draw analogies/create metaphors
Emotional Appeals (pathos):
Develop non-logical appeals
Use language that involves the senses
Include a bias or prejudice
Include connotative language
Ethical Appeals (ethos)
Show written voice in the argument
Make audience believe writer is trustworthy
Demonstrate that writer put in research time
Support reasons with appropriate, logical evidence
Present a carefully crafted and edited argument
Order chronologically
Provide evidence
Classify evidence
Use testimony
Cite authorities
Quote research
Use facts
Theorize about cause and effect
Argue from precedent
Explore the euphemism
Use figurative language
Develop tone
Experiment with informal language
Demonstrate writer knows & respects audience
Show concern about communicating with audience
Convince the audience that the writer is reliable &
knowledgeable
Logical Fallacies
Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that render an argument invalid.
General guidelines for student writers:
1. Do not claim too much! No writing will completely solve or even fully address all problems involved in a complex
topic.
2. Do not oversimplify complex issues. You selected your topic because it is controversial and multifaceted. If you
reduce the argument to simplistic terms and come up with an easy solution, you will lose your credibility and
diminish your ethos.
3. Support your argument with concrete evidence and specific proposals, not with abstract generalizations and
familiar sentiments. Always assume that your audience is skeptical, expecting you to demonstrate your case
reasonably, without bias or shallow development.
Ten+ Common Logical Fallacies (there are many more!)
1. ad hominem fallacy--“To the individual,” a person’s character is attacked, instead of the argument.
Example: Nick Jacobson is not a worthy candidate for vice-president of the senior class because he is short and
frowns too much.
2. ad populum fallacy—“To the crowd,” a misconception that a widespread occurrence of something is assumed to
make an idea true or right. Example: The parents of Brittany’s friends allow their daughters to stay out until
2:00 a.m. on a school night, so Brittany’s parents should allow her to stay out until 2:00 as well.
3. begging the question—Taking for granted something that really needs proving. Example: “Free all political
prisoners” begs the question of whether some of those concerned have committed an actual crime like blowing up
the chemistry building in a political protest.” *
4. circular reasoning—Trying to prove one idea with another idea that is too similar to the first idea; such logical
ways move backwards in its attempt to move forward. Example: The nuns are not influential because they
rarely try to influence (Rep. Bart Stupak to MSNBC’s Chris Matthews).
5. either/or reasoning—The tendency to see an issue as having only two sides Example: The possession
of firearms should be completely banned or completely legal.
6. hasty generalization—Drawing a general and premature conclusion on the basis of only one or two cases.
Example: The Dallas Police Chief suggested that all dogs be muzzled because two golden retrievers have been
disturbing the peace in Fritz Park.
7. non sequitur—“It does not follow,” an inference or conclusion that does not follow from established premises or
evidence. Example: “He is certainly sincere; he must be right.” OR “He’s the most popular: He should be
president.”
8. pedantry—A display of narrow-minded and trivial scholarship; an arbitrary adherence to rules and forms.
Example: Mary prides herself in knowing so much about grammar, but she never earns high grades on essays
because she cannot think of insightful ideas or organize her essays. .
9. post hoc, ergo propter hoc--“After this, therefore because of this,” assuming that an incident that precedes
another is the cause of the second incident. Example: Han-Hui worked on his written argument longer than he
had for any other essay; therefore, he felt he must earn an “A.”
10. propaganda—Writing or images that seek to persuade through emotional appeal rather than through
logical proof; written or visual texts that describe or depict using highly connotative words or images—favorable
or unfavorable—without justification. Example: Chris’s infatuation with the model’s ruby red lips, beautiful
teeth, sparkling eyes, and streaming hair made him believe that Crest White is the best toothpaste.
11. false analogy—A fallacy in which an argument is based on misleading, superficial, or implausible comparisons.
“If ObamaCare passes, that free insurance card that’s in people’s pockets is gonna be as worthless as a
Confederate dollar after the War Between The States—the Great War of Yankee Aggression.” (Paul Broun (RGA))
*Baker, Sheridan. The Practical Stylist With Readings. 8th Edition. New York: Longman, 1998.
Modes of Discourse**
Description -- The traditional classification of discourse that depicts images verbally in space and time and
arranges those images in a logical pattern, such as spatial or by association.
Narration-- The classification of discourse that tells a story or relates an event. It organizes the events or actions
in time or relates them in space. Relying heavily on verbs, prepositions, and adverbs, narration generally tells what
happened, when it happened, and where it happened.
Exposition-- One of the traditional classifications of discourse that has as a function to inform or to instruct or to
present ideas and general truths objectively. Exposition can use all of the following organizational patterns.
 Comparison: This traditional rhetorical strategy is based on the assumption that a subject may be shown
more clearly by pointing out ways it is similar to something else. The two subjects may each be explained
separately and then their similarities pointed out.
 Contrast: This traditional rhetorical strategy is based on the assumption that a subject may be shown
more clearly by pointing out ways in which it is unlike another subject.
 Cause and effect: One of the traditional rhetorical strategies, cause and effect consists in arguing from the
presence or absence of the cause to the existence or nonexistence of the effect or result; or, conversely, in
arguing from an effect to its probable causes.
 Classification: One of the traditional ways of thinking about a subject; classification identifies the subject
as a part of a larger group with shared features.
 Division: Division is a traditional way of thinking about a subject that includes breaking the subject into
smaller segments.
 Definition: Definition is a traditional pattern of thought which places a subject into an appropriate group
and then differentiates the subject from the other sections of the group. The first step limits the meaning of
the subject; the second step specifies its meaning. In prose, definitions are often extended by illustrations
and examples.
 Argumentation: Also persuasion. This traditional form of discourse functions by convincing or persuading
an audience or by proving or refuting a point of view or an issue. Argumentation uses induction, moving
from observations about particular things to generalization, or deduction, moving from generalizations to
valid references about particulars, or some combination of the two as its pattern of development.
**Woodson, Linda. A Handbook of Modern Rhetorical Terms. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
1979.
Toulmin Structure of Argument
Claim
A claim is a statement that you are asking the other person to accept. This includes information you are asking
them to accept as true or actions you want them to accept and enact.
Many people start with a claim, but then find that it is challenged. If you just ask me to do something, I
will not simply agree with what you want. I will ask why I should agree with you. I will ask you to prove
your claim. This is where grounds become important.
Grounds
The grounds (or data) is the basis of real persuasion and is made up of data and hard facts, plus the reasoning
behind the claim. It is the 'truth' on which the claim is based. Grounds may also include proof of expertise and the
basic premises on which the rest of the argument is built. The actual truth of the data may be less than 100%, as all
data is based on perception and hence has some element of assumption about it.
It is critical to the argument that the grounds are not challenged, because if they are, they may become a claim,
which you will need to prove with even deeper information and further argument.
Data is usually a very powerful element of persuasion, although it does affect people differently. Those
who are dogmatic, logical or rational will more likely to be persuaded by data. Those who argue
emotionally and who are highly invested in their own position will challenge it or otherwise try to
ignore it. It is often a useful test to give something factual to the other person that disproves their
argument, and watch how they handle it. Some will accept it without question. Some will dismiss it out
of hand. Others will dig deeper, requiring more explanation. This is where the warrant comes into its
own.
Warrant
A warrant links data and other grounds to a claim, legitimizing the claim by showing the grounds to be relevant.
The warrant may be explicit or unspoken and implicit. It answers the question 'Why does that data mean your claim
is true?'
The warrant may be simple and it may also be a longer argument with additional sub-elements, including those
described below. Warrants may be based on logos, ethos, pathos, or values that are assumed to be shared with the
listener.
In many arguments, warrants are often implicit and hence unstated. This gives space for the other person to
question and expose the warrant, perhaps to show it is weak or unfounded.
There are 6 main argumentative strategies via which the relationship between evidence and claim are often
established. They have the acronym “GASCAP.”
 Generalization
 Analogy
 Sign
 Causality
 Authority
 Principle
These strategies are used at various different levels of generality within an argument, and rarely come in neat
packages - typically they are interconnected and work in combination.
Backing
The backing (or support) to an argument gives additional support to the warrant by answering different questions.
Sometimes the warrant is not broadly understood or broadly accepted. In that case, a speaker or writer may have to
defend the warrant by backing it up with reasons.
Qualifier
The qualifier (or modal qualifier) indicates the strength of the leap from the data to the warrant and may limit how
universally the claim applies. They include words such as 'most', 'usually', 'always', 'sometimes'. Arguments may
thus range from strong assertions to generally quite floppy or largely and often rather uncertain kinds of statement.
Qualifiers and reservations are much used by advertisers who are constrained not to lie. Thus they slip 'usually',
'virtually', 'unless' and so on into their claims.
Rebuttal
Despite the careful construction of the argument, there may still be counter-arguments that can be used. These may
be rebutted either through a continued dialogue, or by pre-empting the counter-argument by giving the rebuttal
during the initial presentation of the argument.
Any rebuttal is an argument in itself, and thus may include a claim, warrant, backing and so on. It also, of course,
can have a rebuttal. Thus, if you are presenting an argument, you can seek both possible rebuttals and also
rebuttals to the rebuttals.
Interrogating Texts: 6 Reading Habits to Develop in Your First Year at Harvard§
Critical reading—active engagement and interaction with texts—is essential to your academic success at Harvard,
and to your intellectual growth. Research has shown that students who read deliberately retain more information
and retain it longer. Your college reading assignments will probably be more substantial and more sophisticated
than those you are used to from high school. The amount of reading will almost certainly be greater. College
students rarely have the luxury of successive re-readings of material, either, given the pace of life in and out of the
classroom.
While the strategies below are (for the sake of clarity) listed sequentially, you can probably do most of them
simultaneously. They may feel awkward at first, and you may have to deploy them very consciously, especially if you
are not used to doing anything more than moving your eyes across the page. But they will quickly become habits,
and you will notice the difference—in what you “see” in a reading, and in the confidence with which you approach
your texts.
1. Previewing: Look “around” the text before you start reading.
You’ve probably engaged in one version of previewing in the past, when you’ve tried to determine how long an
assigned reading is (and how much time and energy, as a result, it will demand from you). But you can learn a great
deal more about the organization and purpose of a text but taking note of features other than its length. Previewing
enables you to develop a set of expectations about the scope and aim of the text. These very preliminary impressions
offer you a way to focus your reading. For instance:




What does the presence of headnotes, an abstract, or other prefatory material tell you?
Is the author known to you, and if so, how does his (or her) reputation or credentials influence your
perception of what you are about to read? If unknown, has an editor helped to situate the writer (by
supplying brief biographical information, an assessment of the author’s work, concerns, and importance)?
How does the disposition or layout of a text prepare you for reading? Is the material broken into parts-subtopics, sections, or the like? Are there long and unbroken blocks of text or smaller paragraphs or
“chunks” and what does this suggest? How might the layout guide your reading?
Does the text seem to be arranged according to certain conventions of discourse? Newspaper articles, for
instance, have characteristics that you will recognize; textbooks and scholarly essays are organized quite
differently from them, and from one another. Texts demand different things of you as you read, so whenever
you can, register the type of information you’re presented with.
2. Annotating: “Dialogue” with yourself, the author, and the issues and ideas at stake.
From start to finish, make your reading of any text thinking-intensive.




First of all: throw away the highlighter in favor of a pen or pencil. Highlighting can actually distract from
the business of learning and dilute your comprehension. It only seems like an active reading strategy; in
actual fact, it can lull you into a dangerous passivity.
Mark up the margins of your text with WORDS: ideas that occur to you, notes about things that seem
important to you, reminders of how issues in a text may connect with class discussion or course themes. This
kind of interaction keeps you conscious of the REASON you are reading and the PURPOSES your instructor
has in mind. Later in the term, when you are reviewing for a test or project, your marginalia will be useful
memory triggers.
Develop your own symbol system: asterisk a key idea, for example, or use an exclamation point for the
surprising, absurd, bizarre . . .. Like your marginalia, your hieroglyphs can help you reconstruct the
important observations that you made at an earlier time. And they will be indispensable when you return to
a text later in the term, in search of a passage, an idea for a topic, or while preparing for an exam or project.
Get in the habit of hearing yourself ask questions—“what does this mean?” “why is he or she drawing that
conclusion?” “why is the class reading this text?” etc. Write the questions down (in your margins, at the
beginning or end of the reading, in a notebook, or elsewhere. They are reminders of the unfinished business
you still have with a text: something to ask during class discussion, or to come to terms with on your own,
once you’ve had a chance to digest the material further, or have done further reading.
3. Outline, summarize, analyze: take the information apart, look at its parts, and then try to put it back
together again in language that is meaningful to you.
The best way to determine that you’ve really gotten the point is to be able to state it in your own words. Outlining
the argument of a text is a version of annotating, and can be done quite informally in the margins of the text, unless
you prefer the more formal Roman numeral model you may have learned in high school. Outlining enables you to
see the skeleton of an argument: the thesis, the first point and evidence (and so on), through the conclusion. With
weighty or difficult readings, that skeleton may not be obvious until you go looking for it. Summarizing accomplishes
something similar, but in sentence and paragraph form, and with the connections between ideas made explicit.
Analyzing adds an evaluative component to the summarizing process—it requires you not just to restate main ideas,
but also to test the logic, credibility, and emotional impact of an argument. In analyzing a text, you reflect upon and
weigh in on how effectively or how sloppily its argument has been made. Questions to ask:





What is the writer asserting is true or valid (that is, what is he or she trying to convince me of? What am I
being asked to believe or accept?
Why should I accept the writer’s claim(s) as true or valid? Or, conversely, why should I reject the writer’s
claim(s)?
What reasons or evidence does the author supply me, and how effective is the evidence?
What is fact? And what is opinion?
Is there anywhere that the reasoning breaks down? Are there things that do not make sense?
4. Look for repetitions and patterns:
These are often indications of what an author considers crucial and what he expects you to glean from his argument.
The way language is chosen or used can also alert you to ideological positions, hidden agendas or biases. Be
watching for:



Recurring images
Repeated words, phrases, types of examples, or illustrations
Consistent ways of characterizing people, events, or issues
5. Contextualize: After you’ve finished reading, put the reading in perspective.


When was it written or where was it published? Do these factors change or otherwise affect how you view a
piece?
Also view it through the lens of your own experience. Your understanding of the words on the page and their
significance is always shaped by what you have come to know and value from living in a particular time and
place.
6. Compare and Contrast: Fit this text into an ongoing dialogue



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At what point in the term does this reading come? Why that point, do you imagine?
How does it contribute to the main concepts and themes of the course?
How does it compare (or contrast) to the ideas presented by texts that come before it? Does it continue a
trend, shift direction, or expand the focus of previous readings?
How has your thinking been altered by this reading or how has it affected your response to the issues and
themes of the course?
§Source:
Harvard College Library, http://hcl.harvard.edu/research/guides/lamont_handouts/interrogatingtexts.html#top
Strategies for Effective Analytical Reading in AP English
Use these questions to get you started in your analysis of readings for class. As the semester goes on and
you are used to more in-depth thinking, you will add questions. Think of this as a working document.
1. What is the text about?
To answer this question, you need to:
 Take notes
 For each paragraph, list a word or phrase that identifies the point of the paragraph
 Collect your notes and phrases to create a summary of the piece
2. How is the text structured?
To answer this question, you need to:
 Identify which of the statements function as claims, premises or reasons, evidence, and
conclusions
 Be able to describe the structure or composition of the essay
 Read for relationships between sentences and paragraphs
3. How would you describe the language of the text?
To answer this question, you need to:
 Examine the syntax, diction, tone, and figures of speech used by the author
 Be able to describe the effect of each of these elements
4. To whom is the text addressed? How do you know this?
To answer this question, you need to:
 Use historical or contextual evidence to speculate about the intended audience
 Identify the speaker’s tone
5. What effect does the text have on the reader?
To answer this question, you need to:
 Identify rhetorical strategies used by the author
 Examine your emotional and intellectual responses to the text
 Figure out how the rhetorical strategies create the intellectual and emotional effects
6. What is the text arguing?
To answer this question, you need to:
 Put the main points of all the paragraphs together to see what argument emerges
 Read for implied meaning
 Read for the relationships between sentences and paragraphs
 Look at the structure, language, and subject to see how these elements work together to
produce an argument
7. Is the text effective at its goal? Why?
To answer this question, you need to:
 Identify the point or argument of the text
 Consider the rhetorical strategies at work in the text
 Determine whether the strategies work to supplement the point or argument
Patterns for A+ Thesis Statements—AP Language Timed Writings
A simple thesis fits into one sentence. More complicated ideas may be broken into two sentences to preserve clarity and avoid
awkward syntax.
For rhetorical analysis questions:
Prompt: “In the following passage from The Great Influenza, an account of the 1918 flu epidemic, author John M. Barry writes
about scientists and their research. Read the passage carefully. Then, in a well-written essay, analyze how Barry uses rhetorical
strategies to characterize scientific research.”
Topic
Claim(s)
Developer(s)
Modifier (optional)
Connector
Significance
Author/text
Verb
_____adj________
Devices/techniques
X
Verb
Theme/universal
idea/tone/attitude/purpose
In the excerpt from The Great Influenza, John M. Barry
employs
rhetorical questions, parallel structure, and figurative language
X
to characterize
scientific research as something far less certain than laymen generally
expect.
Notes on writing the essay:
—In a rhetorical analysis timed writing, if there is irony, ambiguity, or a shift present in the text, be sure to identify it in either the
“claim,” “the developer,” or the “significance.”
Ex.:
In the excerpt from “Birthday Party,” John M. Barry shifts from the concrete to the abstract, employing rhetorical questions,
parallel structure, and figurative language to characterize scientific research as something far less certain than laymen
generally expect.
—Do not simply summarize the passage. You are expected to identify what the writer is saying, how he/she is saying it, and why
he/she is saying it that way.
—Do not merely list devices. Be sure to explain the function and purpose of those devices as they relate the universal
idea/tone/purpose (whatever the prompt is asking). Don’t be thrown by the terminology. “Stylistic devices,” “resources of language,”
“literary devices,” “rhetorical devices” and “strategies” are largely interchangeable terms for the same things.
For argument questions:
Prompt: “For years corporations have sponsored high school sports. Their ads are found on the outfield fence at baseball parks or on
the walls of the gymnasium, the football stadium, or even the locker room. Corporate logos are even found on players’ uniforms. But
some schools have moved beyond corporate sponsorship of sports to allowing “corporate partners” to place their names and ads on all
kinds of school facilities—libraries, music rooms, cafeterias. Some schools accept money to require students to watch Channel One, a
news program that includes advertising. And schools often negotiate exclusive contracts with soft drink or clothing companies.
Some people argue that corporate partnerships are a necessity for cash-strapped schools. Others argue that schools should provide an
environment free from ads and corporate influence. Using appropriate evidence, write an essay in which you evaluate the pros and
cons of corporate sponsorship for schools and indicate why you find one position more persuasive than the other.”
Topic
Claim(s)
Developer(s)
Controversial subject
Position
Reason(s)
Modifier (optional)
Connector (optional)
Significance
(optional)
Qualifiers/limiters/exceptions
Conjunction/transition
Consequence/relevance/
benefit/result
Corporate advertisements in public schools
are appropriate and even desirable
in order to provide much needed funding and create a realistic educational
environment,
as long as corporations don’t control the curriculum.
This will allow
schools to purchase the latest equipment and students to be better prepared
for life as wary adult consumers.
Notes on writing the essay:
—Be sure to provide evidence for all assertions.
—Be sure to display maturity by taking your opponents’ perspectives and concerns into account. This would include offering
reasonable rebuttals to their arguments to show you have considered them.
For synthesis questions:
The most common types of synthesis questions are persuasive and expository. If you are asked to take a position, you can use the
pattern provided above for persuasive topics. If you are asked to write an expository essay (“Identify key issues and their
implications,” “evaluate the most important factors,” etc.), use the pattern below.
“Key Issues” Prompt: “Locavores are people who have decided to eat locally grown or produced products as much as possible.
With an eye to nutrition as well as sustainability (resource use that preserves the environment, the locavore movement has become
widespread over the past decade. Imagine that a community is considering organizing a locavore movement. Carefully read the
following seven sources, including the introductory information for each source. Then synthesize information from at least three of
the sources and incorporate it into a coherent, well-developed essay that identifies the key issues associated with the locavore
movement and examines their implications for the community.”
Developer(s)
Controversial subject
Adjective + noun + verb (from
prompt)
Issues/influences/factors
Modifier (optional)
Connector (optional)
Significance
(optional)
Qualifiers/limiters/exceptions
Conjunction/transition
Consequence/relevance/
benefit/result
Topic
Claim(s)
When a community considers organizing a locavore movement,
the key issues to consider are
(adj) (noun) (verb)
affordability for the average family, sustainability of the program, and the
impact on the local economy.
As long as organizers don’t focus on price alone,
a locavore program
can raise the standard of living for everyone in the long term.
“Position” Prompt: “The United States Postal Service (USPS) has delivered communications for more than two centuries. During
the nineteenth century, the USPS helped to expand the boundaries of the U.S. by providing efficient and reliable communication
across the country. Between 1790 and 1860 alone, the number of post offices in the U.S. grew from 75 to over 28,000. With this
growth came job opportunities for postal workers and a boom in the cross-country rail system. The twentieth century brought
substantial growth to the USPS, including large package delivery and airmail. Over the past decade, however, total mail volume has
decreased considerably as competition from electronic mail and various package delivery companies has taken business away from the
USPS. The loss of revenue has prompted the USPS to consider cutting back on delivery days and other services.
Carefully read the following seven sources, including the introductory information for each source. Then synthesize information from
at least three of the sources and incorporate it into a coherent, well-developed essay that argues a clear position on whether the USPS
should be restructured to meet the needs of a changing world, and if so, how.”
Connector (optional)
Significance
(optional)
Conjunction/transition
Consequence/relevance/
benefit/result
Topic
Controversial subject
Modifier (optional)
Qualifiers/limiters/exceptions
Claim(s)
Adjective + noun + verb (from
prompt)
Developer(s)
Issues/influences/factors
In a fast-paced society of sleek innovations and modern new technologies,
it can be easy to get lost in the hype of popular new gadgets and trends
while, if not forgetting, moving away from the traditions and enterprises
that were so vital to the United States as a developing country.
The United States Postal Service has become a casualty of the innovation
we laud so highly.
While we should not discount the progress made in the past decades that
has facilitated a transition to faster and sleeker technologies,
it is also paramount that we support and maintain traditions and symbols of
(adj)
(verb)
(verb)
(noun)
(noun)
the American dream like the USPS
by applying modern principles and revamping the company’s image and
organization.
Notes on writing the essay:
—Do not merely summarize the sources. They should be used to support your argument or exploration of the topic.
—ALWAYS use at least THREE of the sources in your essay.
—ALWAYS document/cite the sources you use, whether you quote them directly or merely summarize them.
—Be sure to display maturity by taking other possible perspectives and concerns into account.
Tips for Writing Rhetorical Analysis Timed Writings
1) In your essay, always include the following:
 What is the writer saying? (What does the prompt ask you about the passage?)
 How is he/she saying it? (What literary techniques does the writer use to convey his/her ideas? These may also
be identified in the prompt by expressions such as “literary devices,” “narrative techniques,” “resources of
language,” or some other general label.)
 Why is he/she saying it that way? (Why are the techniques used particularly appropriate to express the writer’s
ideas? What are the connections between form and function?)
2) Remember the following in writing an introduction:
 Identify the author(s) and title(s).
 Specifically identify the idea content of the paper.
 Specifically identify the techniques you will analyze (rhetorical questions, juxtaposition, military imagery,
anaphora, etc.).
o Poor—“The author conveys her ideas about the subject using many literary techniques.” “The author
uses a multitude of literary devices.” “The writer employs various techniques.”
o Better—“The writer portrays her experience as painful, but not crippling.” “Annie Dillard employs
asyndeton and musical imagery to humanize the normally esoteric subject of genetics.” “The author
applies rhetorical questions, juxtaposition, and agrarian imagery to…”
 Don’t waste time on an elaborate intro, but don’t begin in the middle of a thought. Get to the point, but set it up
smoothly.
o Poor because it’s underdone and vague—“In the passage provided, Capote paints a vivid picture in the
reader’s mind.” “He uses tone and structure to help the reader grasp his point.”
o Poor because it’s overdone and fawning (stop cheerleading!)—“Since the dawn of human history,
mankind has feared the darkness. What mystical dangers lurked just beyond the boundary between sun
and shadow? In fear and superstition, we invented dark gods, spirits, and demons to personify this
primary terror. As our ancestors wrestled with their perceptions of evil, both rational and irrational,
superstition evolved into religion, religion transformed into philosophy, and philosophy metamorphosed
into the complex moral and ethical systems by which we live today. It is all too natural for human beings,
as slaves to these illusory and artificial systems of morality, to misperceive the true threat. While
societies around the globe eternally look for the source of evil to the outside, the foreign, the “other”,
Truman Capote understands that the true nature of evil lies within each of us. Our safe and comfortable
world, ruled by the repetition of the mundane, is, in fact, subject at any moment to a devastating assault
of evil. This assault may come, not from an obvious and distant villain, but from the most unlikely of
individuals, a tortured soul that has lost his inner battle between the ever-combative forces of good and
evil. Capote’s brilliant documentary novel, In Cold Blood, fully explores this moral horror. The passage
provided is from the opening of the book, and in it Capote masterfully sets the stage for his disturbing tale
using a plethora of exquisitely chosen tools of language.” (I’m exhausted just reading that!)
o Adequate, but minimal—“In the opening passage of Truman Capote’s In Cold Blood, the writer portrays
the small town of Holcomb. Through his control of structure, detached tone, and meaningful choice of
detail, he makes it clear that the town appears to be ordinary, despite its horrible history.”
o Better—“In Truman Capote’s In Cold Blood, the writer portrays a town that is apparently very ordinary.
Nothing and no one stops in this unremarkable little community. However, the final lines of the passage
imply that something very unordinary will soon be revealed, and that the reader can expect to see this
bland scene in a new light. Capote employs anaphora, parenthetic expressions, a detached tone, and
significant details to emphasize Holcomb’s blandness and to hint at the drama to come.
3) Make specific references to the text(s).
 Quote where feasible; use line numbers or paragraph numbers to refer to lengthy sections.
 Integrate quotes smoothly with your own text. Use transitional phrases (“the author states…” “Angier writes…”)
and brackets when you need to make a change within the quote itself (The speaker challenges the opposition,
saying that, “[they] don’t know what [they’re] doing.” —the original read, “You don’t know what you’re doing.”)
o Poor because the quote sits alone without connection to the writer’s analysis—“The earth
developed like a living thing. Time is speeded up. “The ice rolled up; the ice rolled back.”
o Better—“The earth may seem unchanging, but the writer captures the moving cycle of nature when she
collapses thousands of years of time into two simple clauses, saying, “The ice rolled up; the ice rolled
back.”
4) Concentrate on analysis, not summary.
 Assume that your audience has read the piece. Don’t spend too much time summarizing plot, but provide enough
details to support your contentions.
o Poor/TMS—“Nothing stops in Holcomb: not the river, or the cars, or the trains. The post office is falling
apart. No one can even buy alcohol here.
o Better—In a series of similes—“[l]ike the waters of the river, like the motorists on the highway, and like
the yellow trains streaking down the Santa Fe tracks, drama…had never stopped there”—Capote
captures the ordinariness of Holcomb. This juxtaposition of an impersonal natural force (the river) with
the human elements of cars and trains emphasizes the blandness of Holcomb. Drivers and engineers
have the choice to stop their vehicles, but Capote implies that the town is so dull that they must bypass
the town, just as the water must continue downstream. Additionally, the use of anaphora evident in the
repetition of “like” creates a compounding effect. The list emphasizes the magnitude of Holcomb’s
uninteresting nature. Nothing stops in Holcomb.
5) Make connections between form and function (but don’t use those words in your essay). This is the essence of the
style analysis essay. Always point out the significance or effect of the techniques you identify—the more specific and
insightful the connection, the better.
Poor/superficial
Poor/unspecified/unexplained
Poor/invalid
Better
The author uses first person to help the reader see the character’s ideas. The author
uses imagery to place a picture in the reader’s mind. First person point of view
allows her to tell the story. The differences show a contrast between the town and
the farm. The writer uses imagery to describe how the speaker feels. Capote uses
sensory detail to see what is to be seen and hear what is to be heard.
The signs and even the buildings, such as the mansion and the train depot, are
falling apart (why is this significant? why choose these details?). Dillard uses
personification to represent the mangroves (why is “personification” especially
appropriate here?).
Flashbacks help set the tone of the essay. Flashbacks prove the speaker is
depressed (also psychobabble). The tone is ambiguous since the speaker’s gender
is not specified. The anaphora shows how the speaker feels about his experience.
Repetition emphasizes the author’s… Repetition links the opening paragraph with
the conclusion by…. The central metaphor of decaying buildings conveys the moral
decay of the community. The metaphor of the lock and key is appropriate because
the lock mirrors the closed nature of the daughter’s problems, while the key
represents the simplistic attitude of the unseen speaker—he or she assumes that the
mother can solve her child’s problems as easily as turning a key. Rhetorical
questions reinforce the speaker’s confusion and helplessness, as they are never
meant to be answered.
6) Miscellaneous reminders:
 Use literary present tense (the mother rationalizes her failures…; Holcomb is portrayed as a peaceful town…)
 Use the most specific terms you can. If you can’t think of a specific one, use a more general expression.
o Poor—The writer uses a literary device
o Adequate—The writer uses descriptive language to…; questions convey…; the comparison reinforces…
o Better—The writer uses military imagery to…; rhetorical questions convey…; the simile reinforces…
 Note: Never say “uses diction” or “uses syntax.” Diction is word choice and syntax is sentence structure. All
writers use words and all sentences have a structure. You are not conveying your insight by saying that. Use an
adjective or a phrase to specify the nature of your observation.
o Poor—“The writer uses diction to…” “The writer uses syntax to…”
o Better—“The writer’s religious diction conveys…” or “The passage contains diction with scientific
connotations…” or “The author manipulates her syntax in order to…” or “The writer’s use of parallel
sentence structure reflects…”
 Note: If you find irony, ambiguity, or ambivalence, always point it out. The AP readers eat it up. Don’t fake it,
though. That will make the readers throw it up.
GAG* Sheet (*Grammar at a Glance)
Independent Clause (I)
Dependent (D) / subordinate clause:
Noun
Pronoun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
Conjunction
Preposition
Interjection
Book
Magazine
Newspaper,
Film
“Short Story”
“Song”
“Article”
“Essay”
*Adjective clause
*Adverb clause
*Noun clause
Prepositions
The mouse ran ___ the clock.
It is=it’s
Possessive it=its
Coordinating
Conjunctions
ADJ
N. or PRO.
For
And
Nor
ADV
V, ADJ. or ADV.
But
Or
Yet
So
Transitional expressions: as a result, for example,
in other words, at any rate, in addition, on the
contrary, by the way, in fact, on the other hand
Someone left his or her
umbrella.
Singular subject + singular verb
Capitalize
Specific names of persons, places,
things.
Stone Mountain / mountain
Atlantic Ocean / ocean
President Bush / man
Simple - I
Compound = I ; I
Complex = I+ D
Compound-Complex=I + D + I
John is going to the office.
Plural subject + plural verb
John and Mary are going to the office.
Adjective Phrase
Adverb Phrase
A prepositional phrase
functioning as an adjective.
A prepositional phrase
functioning as an adverb.
The boys from GHS tried
to outrun the opposition.
The water splashed along
the stream.
Possessives
Misplaced/Dangling Modifiers
-Filling the air with thick smoke, we watched the garage
burn. (did we fill the air with smoke?)
-Joan bought a new DVD player for the family which
never worked well. (did the family or the DVD not work well?)
-The car went off the road while trying to read the map.
(was the car trying to read the map?)
Appositive =placed beside
another N to identify or
explain it
Appositive phrase=
appositive + modifiers
My
Mine
Your
Yours
His
Her
: (Colon)
Their a list
Indicates
One of the boys left his
umbrella.
S-V
S-V-DO
S-V-IO-DO
S-V-DO-OC
S-LV-PN
S-LV PA
Who/Whom
Nominative=Who/whoever
Objective = Whom/whomever
Linking Verbs
Am
Is
Are
Was
Were
Interjections- Wow, huh? Shoot,
blah! Duh!
Subject
Predicate
DO
IO
PN
PA
OP
OC
Comma
D,I.
Items in a series
City, State
After nouns of address
I, conjunction I.
I, transition I.
Gerunds are –ing NOUNS and can do anything a noun
is to follow.
can do.
Spelling is an easy subject. SUBJECT
She is proficient in spelling. OP
Participles are –ed or –ing ADJECTIVES.
-ing indicates a present participle
I like swimming. DO
-ed (or the past-tense form of the verb indicates a past participle
His hobby is singing . PN
Mary expects to learn typing. Object of infinitive
The dog eating the bone is mine. Modifies dog.
A gerund phrase is the gerund and the words that go with
Lying in the sun, I got very sleepy. Modifies I
it.
Running a 5K is especially satisfying.
The tall man carrying the briefcase is Mr. Bixby. Modifies man.
.
; (Semicolon)
-Between two or more
independent clauses. I;I.
-Between items in a series
when there are already
commas in the items.
Adverb Phrases
is a prepositional phrase
that functions as an adverb.
Prepositional Phrases begin
with a preposition and end with
a N or PRO.
He ran without stopping
for 5K. modifies ran
Correlative conjunctions
Both…and
Either…or
Neither…nor
Not only…but also
Subordinating conjunctions
After, although, as, as if, as much as, as though, as well as,
because, before, even though, how, if, in order that, provided,
since, so that, than, that, when , whenever, where, wherever,
while, why
Adjective Phrase is a
prepositional phrase that
functions as an adjective.
The man with the big hat is
wealthy. modifies man
Singular subject + singular verb
Plural subject + plural Verb
Conjunctive adverbs - Also, anyway, besides, consequently,
furthermore, however, still, instead, likewise, meanwhile,
moreover, nevertheless, then, therefore
Tone Vocabulary
Like the tone of a speaker’s voice, the tone of a work of literature expresses the writer’s feelings. To determine the tone of a
passage, ask yourself the following questions:
1. What is the subject of the passage? Who is its intended audience?
2. What are the most important words in the passage? What connotations do these words have?
3. What feelings are generated by the images of the passage?
4. Are there any hints that the speaker or narrator does not really mean everything he or she says? If any jokes are made,
are they lighthearted or bitter?
5. If the narrator were speaking aloud, what would the tone of his or her voice be?
Positive Tone/Attitude Words
Amiable
Consoling
Amused
Content
Appreciative
Dreamy
Authoritative
Ecstatic
Benevolent
Elated
Brave
Elevated
Calm
Encouraging
Cheerful
Energetic
Cheery
Enthusiastic
Compassionate
Excited
Complimentary
Exuberant
Confident
Fanciful
Friendly
Happy
Hopeful
Impassioned
Jovial
Joyful
Jubilant
Lighthearted
Loving
Optimistic
Passionate
Peaceful
Playful
Pleasant
Proud
Relaxed
Reverent
Romantic
Soothing
Surprised
Sweet
Sympathetic
Vibrant
Whimsical
Negative Tone/Attitude Words
Accusing
Choleric
Aggravated
Coarse
Agitated
Cold
Angry
Condemnatory
Apathetic
Condescending
Arrogant
Contradictory
Artificial
Critical
Audacious
Desperate
Belligerent
Disappointed
Bitter
Disgruntled
Boring
Disgusted
Brash
Disinterested
Childish
Facetious
Furious
Harsh
Haughty
Hateful
Hurtful
Indignant
Inflammatory
Insulting
Irritated
Manipulative
Obnoxious
Outraged
Passive
Quarrelsome
Shameful
Smooth
Snooty
Superficial
Surly
Testy
Threatening
Tired
Uninterested
Wrathful
Humor-Irony-Sarcasm Tone/Attitude Words
Amused
Droll
Bantering
Facetious
Bitter
Flippant
Caustic
Giddy
Comical
Humorous
Condescending
Insolent
Contemptuous
Ironic
Critical
Irreverent
Cynical
Joking
Disdainful
Malicious
Mock-heroic
Mocking
Mock-serious
Patronizing
Pompous
Quizzical
Ribald
Ridiculing
Sad
Sarcastic
Sardonic
Satiric
Scornful
Sharp
Silly
Taunting
Teasing
Whimsical
Wry
Source: PAP/AP English Handbook, Grades 9-12
Tone Vocabulary (cont.)
Sorrow-Fear-Worry Tone/Attitude Words
Aggravated
Embarrassed
Agitated
Fearful
Anxious
Foreboding
Apologetic
Gloomy
Apprehensive
Grave
Concerned
Hollow
Confused
Hopeless
Dejected
Horrific
Depressed
Horror
Despairing
Melancholy
Disturbed
Miserable
Morose
Mournful
Nervous
Numb
Ominous
Paranoid
Pessimistic
Pitiful
Poignant
Regretful
Remorseful
Resigned
Sad
Serious
Sober
Solemn
Somber
Staid
Upset
Neutral Tone/Attitude Words
Admonitory
Dramatic
Allusive
Earnest
Apathetic
Expectant
Authoritative
Factual
Baffled
Fervent
Callous
Formal
Candid
Forthright
Ceremonial
Frivolous
Clinical
Haughty
Consoling
Histrionic
Contemplative
Humble
Conventional
Incredulous
Detached
Informative
Didactic
Inquisitive
Disbelieving
Instructive
Intimae
Judgmental
Learned
Loud
Lyrical
Matter-of-fact
Meditative
Nostalgic
Objective
Obsequious
Patriotic
Persuasive
Pleading
Pretentious
Provocative
Questioning
Reflective
Reminiscent
Resigned
Restrained
Seductive
Sentimental
Serious
Shocking
Sincere
Unemotional
Urgent
Vexed
Wistful
Zealous
Language Words-Used to describe the force or quality of the entire piece
Like word choice, the language of a passage has control over tone. Consider language to be the entire body of words used
in a text, not simply isolated bits of diction, imagery, or detail. For example, an invitation to a graduation might use formal
language, whereas a biology text would use scientific and clinical language.
Different from tone, these words describe the force or quality of the diction, images, and details AS A WHOLE. These
words qualify how the work is written.
Artificial
Bombastic
Colloquial
Concrete
Connotative
Cultured
Detached
Emotional
Esoteric
Euphemistic
Exact
Figurative
Formal
Grotesque
Homespun
Idiomatic
Informal
Insipid
Jargon
Learned
Source: PAP/AP English Handbook, Grades 9-12
Literal
Moralistic
Obscure
Obtuse
Ordinary
Pedantic
Picturesque
Plain
Poetic
Precise
Pretentious
Provincial
Scholarly
Sensuous
Simple
Slang
Symbolic
Trite
Vulgar
AP Caliber Verbs
(to use in essays)
Practice using a variety of verbs to phrase “said” and “symbolize” in different ways. Avoid using “symbolize” because students find it
too easy to write “x symbolizes y” and then neglect to explain or justify with details.
show (1 x only)
symbolize (1 x only)
relay
signify
develop
characterize
evoke
introduce
detail
minimize
parallels
weaken
promote
writes
contributes
testifies
affirms
entails
directs
support
define
adds
validates
dismiss
proposes
reaffirms
render
paint
tint
simplify
connect
epitomize
suggest
portray
allude
describe
involves
view
convey
portend
maximize
corroborate
display
produces
continues
cause
verifies
deters
explains
compare
legitimize
enforces
detract
invalidates
justify
mislead
states
comprehend
builds
understand
complicate
expresses
illustrate
imply
relate
reveal
reflect
diminish
enable
establish
foreshadow
identify
refer
amplify
concludes
points
affects
certifies
presents
traces
contrast
deny
enhance
resembles
hint
translate
guide
specify
link
balances
envelops
juxtapose
parodies
demonstrate
infer
represent
discover
use
draw
transmit
magnify
reiterate
correlate
strengthen
exemplify
consider
stem
effect (verb)
vouch
marks
leads
confuse
defy
reinforce
contradict
create
indicates
address
complement
communicate
ascertain
evolves
combines
satirize
WORDS TO DESCRIBE SYNTAX
plain
spare
austere
unadorned
ornate
elaborate
flowery
jumbled
chaotic
obfuscating
erudite
esoteric
journalistic
terse
laconic
harsh
grating
mellifluous
musical
lilting
lyrical
whimsical
elegant
staccato
abrupt
solid
thudding
sprawling
disorganized
dry
deceptively simple
18 Detractors from Mature Academic Voice
1.
Use of first person. Avoid “I think,” “I believe,” “To me this means…”
2.
Use of second person “you.” Avoid the use of the second person. No: “when you die…” Instead use: “When humans
die…” No: “The slant rhyme makes you notice…” Instead use: “The slant rhyme makes the reader notice.”
3.
Colloquial speech and immature, excessively informal vocabulary. Examples: “Your average Joe,” “Joe College,” “Back
in the olden days,” “Nowadays,” “A bunch of…a ton of…” (Does the writer mean “a significant number of…”?); “I would
have to say…” (Not really); “That would have to be…” (Again, not really)
4.
Use of psychobabble: “Pap destroyed Huck’s self-esteem.” “The peer pressure on Hester Prynne,” “Gatsby was depressed
by…” “Huck and Jim’s life-style on the raft…” “Virginia Woolf, herself a depressed person, writes a rather bi-polar essay.”
5.
Use of absolutes: “always” “never” “everybody” “I’ll bet 99.9% of the people…”
6.
Excesses of tone: hysterical, breathless, indignant, self-righteous, cute, breezy, etc. Example: “If a homeless man even talks
he gets arrested.”
7.
Cheerleading, a special kind of excess of tone when the student lavishes praise on an author or her work. Examples: “The
greatest poet…” “Does a magnificent job of…” “so awesome,” “obviously a genius,” “…will affect me for the rest of my life.”
(Note: this observation is not intended to squelch true passion or heart-felt response to literature.)
8.
Silly, weak, childish examples: students’ lack of discernment with regard to quality examples or evidence; using cartoons,
Disney movies, etc. as legitimate evidence.
9.
Rhetorical questions, especially those with an indignant response, such as: “Do we Americans have to put up with this? I
think not!”
10.
Clichés, all of them. They’re as old as the hills.
11.
Exclamation points, especially lots of them!!!!!!
12.
Most adverbs, such as basically, obviously, surely, certainly, very, really, incredibly, totally, etc. should be used sparingly!
13.
Writing about the author or the speaker or narrator as though they are the same. Weak: Dickinson greets death as a
courtly suitor. Stronger: Dickinson’s speaker greets Death as a courtly suitor.
14.
Misspelling the author’s name!
15.
Referring to authors by their first names. Please use “Whitman and Dickinson,” never “Walt and Emily.”
16.
Writing about an author’s life rather than his or her work or specific purpose in a text. Weak: “Whitman and Dickinson
write about death differently due to their different life experiences.” Better: “Dickinson’s purpose in using this image is…” or
“Whitman’s imagery suggests…”
17.
Using technical vocabulary incorrectly. Examples: “Green uses emotional syntax.” “She uses dictional phrases like…”
“His short fragments are all connected by commas and collaborated into a few run-on sentences.”
18.
Gobbledygook, usually some kind of combination of the characteristics listed above. It imitates pretentious writing but
says little. Examples: “The author brilliantly uses a hyphen in order to emphasize and reinforce motivation and justice that
God provides and installs in each and every man.” “Meger (sic) imagery provided by the author commences to place a
precedence (sic) of their style, a conventional rhetoric that gives the passage somewhat of a quixotic tone.”
What is “adequate” development?
Essay contains a clear thesis statement AND enough specific information to explain your main idea.
Content Discussion
Support Includes:
 Examples – particular instances of a general idea or principle – an essay about the best movie of
the year might include a discussion of three or four films.

Details – small items or pieces of information that make up something larger – an essay about an
author might describe details about his or her career.

Facts – specific pieces of information that can be verified – an essay about the tone and style of a
selection might include quotations.

Reasons – explanations, justifications, or causes, often answering the question WHY? about the
main idea – an essay advocating gun control might include an explanation of ineffective current
laws.

Events – incidents or happenings – a travel memoir might include one or two amusing anecdotes.
A well developed essay must contain enough support to meet the expectations established by your
introduction and thesis statement. In addition, the supporting information must make the essay seem
complete.
A rule of thumb: If your reader turns the page to look for the rest of your paper, it is not complete!
Thoreau advocates “simplify, simplify.” I advocate “specify, specify.”
Follow both!
MLA Citation Information
Here are some guidelines and samples for citing sources and preparing bibliography pages. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers by
Joseph Gibaldi is the comprehensive MLA tool for students. Two copies of this book are available at the circulation desk. In addition, always ask
your teacher or the media staff for help when you do not know how to cite a source.
Note:

Double space within and between entries

Single space after all concluding punctuation marks

Alphabetize entries by the author’s last name

Indent from 2nd line on in each entry
A BOOK BY A SINGLE AUTHOR (5.6.1)
Last name, first name of author. Title of the Book. City of publication: Publisher, year of publication.
Wormser, Richard L. Three Faces of Vietnam. New York: Franklin Watts, 1993.
A BOOK BY TWO OR MORE AUTHORS (5.6.4)
Last name, first name, and first name last name. Title of the Book. City of publication: Publisher, year of publication.
Simpson, Carolyn, and Mary Hall. Careers in Medicine. New Haven: Rosen Publishing, 1994.
AN ENTIRE ANTHOLOGY OR A COMPILATION (5.6.2)
Last name, first name, ed. Title of the Anthology. City of publication: Publisher, year of publication.
Michelson, Bruce, ed. The Norton Anthology of American Literature. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998.
A WORK IN AN ANTHOLOGY (5.6.7)
Last name, first name. “Title of work or chapter.” Title of the Book or Anthology. Ed. Name of editor. City of publication: Publisher, year of
publication. Page numbers.
Beach, Joseph. “John Steinbeck’s Authentic Characters.” Readings on John Steinbeck. Ed. Clarice Swisher. San Diego: Greenhaven, 1966. 21-24.
A BOOK BY A CORPORATE AUTHOR (5.6.6)
Name of Corporation. Title of the Book. Ed. Name of editor. City of publication: Publisher, year of publication.
American Medical Association. Complete Guide to Women’s Health. Ed. Ramona Slupik. New York: Random House, 1996.
AN ARTICLE IN A NEWSPAPER (5.7.5)
Last name, first name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper Day Month Year: page numbers+. URL if accessed online.
Hulber, Dan. “Disney Rescues a Faded Broadway Star.” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution 25 May 1997: K4+. http://www.ajc.com/.
AN ARTICLE IN A MONTHLY PERIODICAL (5.7.6)
Last name, first name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine Month Year: page numbers. URL if accessed online.
Vizard, Frank. “Electric Tales.” Popular Science June 1997: 57-59+. http://www.popsci-magazine.com.
AN ARTICLE IN A WEEKLY PERIODICAL (5.7.6)
Last name, first name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine Day Month Year: page numbers. URL if accessed online.
Jaroff, Leon. “Etched in Stone.” Time 2 June 1997: 67-70. http://www.time.com/time/.
AN ARTICLE IN A SCHOLARLY JOURNAL (5.7.1)
Last name, first name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal Volume.Issue (Year): pages.
Sipe, Rebecca. “Grammar Matters.” English Journal 95.5 (2006): 15–17. http://www.ncte.org/journals/ej.
AN ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE BOOK (5.6.8)
Last name, first name. “Title of Article.” Title of Reference Book. Edition (if available). City of Publication: Publisher, year of publication.
Maxwell, Sam. “Joseph Conrad.” Contemporary Literary Criticism. Detroit: Gale, 1982.
“Baseball.” The World Book Encyclopedia. Chicago: World Book, Inc., 2000.
PERSONAL INTERVIEW (5.8.7)
Last name, first name of person interviewed. Interview type. Day Month Year of interview.
Smith, Sue. Personal interview. 20 June 1996.
AN ENTIRE INTERNET SITE (5.9.2)
Title of Website. Ed. Name editor (if given). Date of latest update. Name of sponsoring institution. Day Month Year of access <URL>.
Major Biomes of the World. Ed. Susan Woodward. July 1997. The Virtual Geography Department at Radford University. 14 August 2006.
http://www.runet.edu/~swoodwar/CLASSES/GEOG235/biomes/main.html.
A PAGE ON A WEBSITE (5.9.1)
Last name, first name of author. “Title of Page.” Title of Website. Date of latest update. Name of sponsoring institution. Day Month Year of access
<URL>.
Conrey, Sean. “Literary Terms.” The Owl at Purdue. February 2006. The Writing Lab at Purdue University. 16 August 2006.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/575/01/.
AN ARTICLE FROM AN ELECTRONIC DATABASE (5.9.7)
Last name, first name of author and/or editor. “Title of Article.” Title of publication (in italics). Volume.issue # (publication date): Page #s, if
available, (n. pag., if no page #s). Publisher information (i. e., name of database service). Day month year material accessed.
Vail, Kathleen. “Columbine: 10 Years Later.” American School Board Journal 196.5 (May 2009): 16-23. Academic Search Complete. Web. 31
Jan. 2011.
A SOUND RECORDING (5.8.2)
Name of Artist. “Name of Song.” Name of Album. Label, Year.
Coldplay. “The Scientist.” A Rush of Blood to the Head. Capital, 2002.
For more information, consult:

MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers by Joseph Gibaldi

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/557/01/
WRITING AND ASKING QUALITY QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION
Questions and Reading: As you read, you should write down questions about the beliefs, ethics, and motivations of the
characters; the values the narrator is trying to convey; the themes being developed; and the language (diction, syntax, detail)
the author uses to convey those ideas.
Guidelines for questions: Create the specified number of good questions.
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Do not write questions that can be answered “yes” or “no”
Do not write questions that can be answered with only a few words
Do not write answers to your questions
Do not write questions that can be answered with simple facts
Do not write questions that are so general that they could apply to any story or character
DO write “why” and “how” questions
DO write questions about details that confuse you or make you wonder
DO write questions about literary elements, diction, syntax, and detail
Sample questions (from “The Black Cat”):
Low-quality questions
Did the narrator like his cat? (yes or no)
What did the narrator do to his wife? (fact)
How does the author use diction? (too general)
What are the connotations of the word “thrilled”?
(answer requires only a few words)
High-quality questions
Why does the narrator feel the cat was crushing him as he
slept?
How does the writer’s syntax convey the narrator’s mental
state during the confrontation scene with the police?
Why does the narrator adopt the second cat?
Guidelines for Participants in a Socratic Discussion
 Refer to the text when needed during the discussion. A seminar is not a test of memory. You are not “learning a subject;”
your goal is to understand the ideas, issues, and values reflected in the text.
 Use specific evidence from the text to support your opinions.
 Do not participate on topics for which you are not prepared. A seminar should not be a bull session.
 Do not stay confused; ask for clarification.
 Stick to the point currently under discussion; make notes about ideas you want to come back to.
 Don’t raise hands; take turns speaking.
 Listen carefully and respond to others with respect for their observations.
 Speak up so that all can hear you.
 Talk to each other, not just to the leader or teacher.
 Discuss ideas rather than each other’s opinions.
 YOU are responsible for the seminar, even if you don’t know it or admit it.
 Do not be an intellectual parasite; contribute to the discussion for more than just getting a better grade.
 Address other students, not the teacher.
Sample questions that demonstrate constructive dialogue rather than debate:
Why is line 8 so confusing?
What is the purpose of all that boring description at the beginning of chapter 14?
Here is my view and how I arrived at it. How does it sound to you?
What gaps in my reasoning can you see?
What kind of different data do you have?
How are your conclusions different from mine?
How did you arrive at your view?
What are you taking into account that’s different from what I have considered?
Can somebody explain the allusion to Hamlet on page 76?
Why does the writer keep repeating the word “cold”?
DIDLS
Title: __________________________________________
NAME(S) ____________________________________
Page #s: _________________, starting at _____________________________ and ending ___________________
D
The author’s choice of words
and their connotations—What
words appear to have been chosen
specifically for their effects?
What effect do these words have
on your mood as the reader?
What do they seem to indicate
about the author’s tone?
I
The use of descriptions that
appeal to sensory experience—
What images are especially vivid?
To what sense do these appeal?
What effect do these images have
on your mood as a reader?
What do they seem to indicate
about the author’s tone?
D
Facts included or those
omitted—What details has the
author specifically included?
What details has the author
apparently left out?
What effect do these included and
excluded details have on your
mood as a reader?
What do these included and
excluded details seem to indicate
about the author’s tone?
L
Characteristics of the body of
words use (slang, jargon,
scholarly language, etc.)—How
could the language be described?
How does the language affect your
mood as a reader?
What does the language seem to
indicate about the author’s tone?
S
The way the sentences are
constructed—Are the sentences
simple, compound, declarative,
varied, etc.?
How do these structures affect
your mood as a reader?
What do these structures seem to
indicate about the author’s tone?
Is the emphasis on nouns or verbs?
What effect does this have?
SOAPSTone
Text Title:___________________________________ Beginning at __________ and ending at ___________
Speaker –Who is the voice that is
speaking and what rhetorical devices does
he use – style?
• The voice that is speaking.
Identification of the historical person (or
group of people) who created the primary
source. What attributes identify the
speaker? Speaker’s perspective and
relationship to the text affect how text is
perceived
• What do we know about this historic or
contemporary person?
• What role does he play in an historic
event?
Occasion– What event or catalyst
initiated writing?
• What is the time and place, the context
in which the primary source was created?
• What is the geographic and historic
intersection at which this source was
produced?
Audience—To whom is the piece
directed?
• Is the writing intended to challenge a
predicted point of view? To build on a
predicted shared point of view?
• Is the audience a peer group?
Superiors? Other?
• Are there both intended and unintended
audiences?
Purpose – What is the reason
behind text?
• Why was it written? What goal did the
author have in mind?
• What is the reader supposed to think or
do as a result of reading/hearing this?
Subject – What is the general topic or
main idea?
• State the subject in a few words or
phrases
Tone – What is the attitude of author
toward the subject?
• Examine the choice of words, emotions
expressed, imagery, etc., (DIDLS) used to
determine the speaker’s attitude.
commentary specific; well
organized; strong evidence;
precise language
insufficient analysis; doesn’t rise above
ordinary; some summary; lacks deep
perceptions; simple analysis at times
Low…attempts to discuss topic; some relevant
points; unfocused or vague at times.
High…concise, articulate;
Medium…accurate points; some
Rhetorical Analysis Rubric
9 Essays earning a score of 9 meet the criteria for a score of 8 and, in addition, are especially
sophisticated in their argument, thorough in their development, or impressive in their control of
language.
8 Effective Essays earning a score of 8 effectively analyze* how Capote uses rhetorical strategies to convey his
message. They develop their analysis with evidence and explanations that are appropriate and convincing,
referring to the passage explicitly or implicitly. The prose demonstrates a consistent ability to control a wide
range of the elements of effective writing but is not necessarily flawless.
7 Essays earning a score of 7 meet the criteria for a score of 6 but provide more complete
explanation, more thorough development, or a more mature prose style.
6 Adequate Essays earning a score of 6 adequately analyze how Capote uses rhetorical strategies to convey his
message to his audience. They develop their analysis with evidence and explanations that are appropriate and
sufficient, referring to the passage explicitly or implicitly. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax,
but generally the prose is clear.
5 Essays earning a score of 5 analyze how Capote uses rhetorical strategies to convey his message to
his audience. The evidence or explanations used may be uneven, inconsistent, or limited. The
writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but it usually conveys the student’s ideas.
4 Inadequate Essays earning a score of 4 inadequately analyze how Capote uses rhetorical strategies to convey
his message to his audience. These essays may misunderstand the passage, misrepresent the strategies Capote
uses, or may analyze these strategies inaccurately. The evidence or explanations used may be inappropriate,
insufficient, or less convincing. The prose generally conveys the student’s ideas but may be less consistent in
controlling the elements of effective writing.
3 Essays earning a score of 3 meet the criteria for a score of 4 but demonstrate less success in
analyzing Capote’s use of rhetorical strategies to convey his message to his audience. They are less
perceptive in their understanding of the passage or Capote’s strategies, or the explanation or
examples may be particularly limited or simplistic. The essays may show less maturity in control of
writing.
2 Little Success Essays earning a score of 2 demonstrate little success in analyzing how Capote uses rhetorical
strategies to convey his message to his audience. These essays may misunderstand the prompt, misread the
passage, fail to analyze the strategies Capote uses, or substitute a simpler task by responding to the prompt
tangentially with unrelated, inaccurate, or inappropriate explanation. The prose often demonstrates consistent
weaknesses in writing, such as grammatical problems, a lack of development or organization, or a lack of
control.
1 Essays earning a score of 1 meet the criteria for a score of 2 but are undeveloped, especially
simplistic in their explanation, or weak in their control of language.
0 Indicates an on-topic response that receives no credit, such as one that merely repeats the prompt.
— Indicates a blank response or one that is completely off topic.
Rhetorical Terms Quiz Schedule (2015-2016)
Rhetorical Terms for September 2
Language devices
1. synecdoche
2. colloquial
3. litotes
4. metonymy
5. paradox
6. euphemism
7. hyperbole
8. allusion
9. irony
10. apostrophe
Rhetorical Terms for September 30
Language devices
1. periphrasis
2. imagery
3. metaphor
4. oxymoron
5. paralipsis
6. personification
7. simile
8. symbol
9. alliteration
10. assonance
Rhetorical Terms for September 9
Argument
1. ethos
2. damning with faint praise
3. deductive reasoning
4. false analogy
5. inductive reasoning
6. logos
7. pathos
8. syllogism
9. argument ad hominem
10. non sequitur fallacy
Rhetorical Terms for October 7
Syntax devices
1. anadiplosis
2. antanaclasis
3. antithesis
4. chiasmus
5. ellipsis
6. epistrophe
7. epanalepsis
8. inverted syntax
9. rhetorical question
10. polyptoton
Rhetorical Terms for September 16
Argument
1. either/or fallacy
2. sweeping generalization
3. post hoc, ergo prompter hoc
4. argument ad populum
5. slippery slope fallacy
6. begging the question
7. circular reasoning
8. straw man fallacy
9. hasty generalization
10. equivocation fallacy
Rhetorical Terms for October 14
Writing Modes
1. anecdote
2. cause and effect
3. chronological ordering
4. classification
5. expository
6. order of importance
7. parable
8. parody
9. persuasion
10. spatial ordering
Rhetorical Terms for September 23
Syntax devices
1. polysyndeton
2. anaphora
3. loose sentence (cumulative)
4. periodic sentence
5. zeugma
6. tricolon
7. apposition
8. parallel structure
9. asyndeton
10. syllepsis
Rhetorical Terms for October 21
Miscellaneous
1. rhetoric
2. satire
3. point of view
4. allegory
5. tone
6. tautology
7. cacophony
8. epithet
9. expletive
10. anesis
Additional sources for definitions and examples
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/rhetoricaldevicesinsound.htm
http://www.uky.edu/AS/Classics/rhetoric.html
http://rhetoric.byu.edu/
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/
http://www.virtualsalt.com/litterms.htm
http://www.logicalfallacies.info/
http://grammar.about.com/od/rhetorictoolkit/Tool_Kit_for_Rhetorical_Analysis.htm