Chapter 4 Product and Pricing Strategies for the Multiproduct Monopolist Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 1 Introduction • A monopolist can offer goods of different varieties – multiproduct firms • The “big” issues: – pricing – product variety: how many? – product bundling: • how to bundle • how to price • whether to tie the sales of one product to sales of another • Price discrimination Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 2 4-1 Price Discrimination • This is a natural phenomenon with multiproduct firms – restaurant meals: table d’hôte or à la carte – different varieties of the same car – airline travel • “goods” of different quality are offered at very different prices • Note the constraints – arbitrage • ensuring that consumers buy the “appropriate” good – identification • How to price goods of different quality? Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 3 Price discrimination and quality • Extract all consumer surplus from the low quality good • Use screening devices – Set the prices of higher quality goods • to meet incentive compatibility constraint • to meet the constraint that higher price is justified by higher quality • One interesting type of screening: crimping the product – offer a product of reasonably high quality – produce lower quality by damaging the higher quality good • student version of Mathematica • different versions of Matlab • the “slow” 486SX produced by damaging the higher speed 486DX – why? • for cost reasons Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 4 A Spatial Approach to Product Variety • Approach to product quality in Chapter 3 is an example of vertical product differentiation – products differ in quality – consumers have similar attitudes to quality: value high quality • An alternative approach – consumers differ in their tastes – firm has to decide how best to serve different types of consumer – offer products with different characteristics but similar qualities • This is horizontal product differentiation Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 5 A Spatial Approach to Product Variety (cont.) • The spatial model (Hotelling) is useful to consider – pricing – design – variety • Has a much richer application as a model of product differentiation – “location” can be thought of in • space (geography) • time (departure times of planes, buses, trains) • product characteristics (design and variety) Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 6 A Spatial Approach to Product Variety (cont.) • Assume N consumers living equally spaced along Main Street – 1 mile long. • Monopolist must decide how best to supply these consumers • Consumers buy exactly one unit provided that price plus transport costs is less than V. • Consumers incur there-and-back transport costs of t per unit • The monopolist operates one shop – reasonable to expect that this is located at the center of Main Street Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 7 The spatial model Price Suppose that the monopolist Price sets a price of pp11 + t.x p1 + t.x V V All consumers within distance x1 to the left and right of the shop will by the product x=0 t t p1 x1 1/2 What determines x1? x1 x=1 Shop 1 p1 + t.x1 = V, so x1 = (V – p1)/t Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 8 The spatial model Price p1 + t.x p1 + t.x Suppose the firm reduces the price to p2? V Then all consumers within distance x2 of the shop will buy from the firm x=0 Price V p1 p2 x2 x1 1/2 x1 x2 x=1 Shop 1 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 9 The spatial model • Suppose that all consumers are to be served at price p. – The highest price is that charged to the consumers at the ends of the market – Their transport costs are t/2 : since they travel ½ mile to the shop – So they pay p + t/2 which must be no greater than V. – So p = V – t/2. • Suppose that marginal costs are c per unit. • Suppose also that a shop has set-up costs of F. • Then profit is p(N, 1) = N(V – t/2 – c) – F. Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 10 Monopoly Pricing in the Spatial Model • What if there are two shops? • The monopolist will coordinate prices at the two shops • With identical costs and symmetric locations, these prices will be equal: p1 = p2 = p – Where should they be located? – What is the optimal price p*? Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 11 Location with Two Shops Suppose that the entire market is Price If there are two shops they will be located V symmetrically a distance d from the The maximumofprice end-points the p(d) the firmmarket can charge is determined Now raisebythethe price consumers at the at each shop Start with a low center of the marketprice at each shop Suppose that d < 1/4 Delivered price to consumers to be servedat the market center equals their reservation price Price V p(d) What determines p(d)? x=0 d Shop 1 1/2 1-d Shop 2 x=1 The shops should be moved inwards Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 12 Location with Delivered Twoprice Shops to consumers at the end-points equals their reservation price The maximum price the firm can charge is now determined by the consumers at the end-points of the market Price Price V V p(d) p(d) Now raise the price at each shop Start with a low price at each shop Now what determines p(d)? x=0 Now suppose that d > 1/4 d Shop 1 1/2 1-d Shop 2 x=1 The shops should be moved outwards Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 13 It follows that shop 1 should be located at 1/4 and shop 2 at 3/4 Location with Two Shops Price at each shop is then p* = V - t/4 Price Price V V V - t/4 V - t/4 Profit at each shop is given by the shaded area c c x=0 1/4 Shop 1 1/2 3/4 Shop 2 x=1 Profit is now p(N, 2) = N(V - t/4 - c) – 2F Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 14 Three Shops What if there are three shops? By the same argument they should be located at 1/6, 1/2 and 5/6 Price Price V Price at each shop is now V - t/6 V V - t/6 V - t/6 x=0 1/6 Shop 1 1/2 Shop 2 5/6 x=1 Shop 3 Profit is now p(N, 3) = N(V - t/6 - c) – 3F Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 15 Optimal Number of Shops • A consistent pattern is emerging. Assume that there are n shops. They will be symmetrically located distance 1/n apart. We have already considered n = 2 and n = 3. How many shops should When n = 2 we have p(N, 2) = V - t/4 there be? When n = 3 we have p(N, 3) = V - t/6 It follows that p(N, n) = V - t/2n Aggregate profit is then p(N, n) = N(V - t/2n - c) – n.F Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 16 Optimal number of shops (cont.) Profit from n shops is p(N, n) = (V - t/2n - c)N - n.F and the profit from having n + 1 shops is: p*(N, n+1) = (V - t/2(n + 1)-c)N - (n + 1)F Adding the (n +1)th shop is profitable if p(N,n+1) - p(N,n) > 0 This requires tN/2n - tN/2(n + 1) > F which requires that n(n + 1) < tN/2F. Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 17 An example Suppose that F = $50,000 , N = 5 million and t = $1 Then t.N/2F = 50 So we need n(n + 1) < 50. This gives n = 6 There should be no more than seven shops in this case: if n = 6 then adding one more shop is profitable. But if n = 7 then adding another shop is unprofitable. Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 18 Some Intuition • What does the condition on n tell us? • Simply, we should expect to find greater product variety when: • there are many consumers. • set-up costs of increasing product variety are low. • consumers have strong preferences over product characteristics and differ in these. Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 19 How Much of the Market to Supply • Should the whole market be served? – Suppose not. Then each shop has a local monopoly – Each shop sells to consumers within distance r – How is r determined? • • • • • it must be that p + tr = V so r = (V – p)/t so total demand is 2N(V – p)/t profit to each shop is then p = 2N(p – c)(V – p)/t – F differentiate with respect to p and set to zero: dp/dp = 2N(V – 2p + c)/t = 0 – So the optimal price at each shop is p* = (V + c)/2 – If all consumers are to be served then price is p(N,n) = V – t/2n • Only part of the market should be served if p(N,n) > p* • This implies that V > c + t/n. Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 20 Partial Market Supply • If c + t/n > V supply only part of the market and set price p* = (V + c)/2 • If c + t/n < V supply the whole market and set price p(N,n) = V – t/2n • Supply only part of the market: – if the consumer reservation price is low relative to marginal production costs and transport costs – if there are very few outlets Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 21 Are there too many shops or What number of shops maximizes total surplus? too few? Social Optimum Total surplus is consumer surplus plus profit Consumer surplus is total willingness to pay minus total revenue Profit is total revenue minus total cost Total surplus is then total willingness to pay minus total costs Total willingness to pay by consumers is N.V Total surplus is therefore N.V - Total Cost So what is Total Cost? Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 22 Social optimum (cont.) Assume that there are n shops Price Price V Transport cost for each shop is the area of these two triangles multiplied by consumer density V Consider shop i Total cost is total transport cost plus set-up costs t/2n x=0 t/2n 1/2n 1/2n Shop i Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 x=1 This area is t/4n2 23 Social optimum (cont.) Total cost with n shops is, therefore: C(N,n) = n(t/4n2)N + n.F = tN/4n + n.F If t = $1, F = $50,000, Total cost with n + 1 shops is: C(N,n+1) (n+1).F There five shops: N==tN/4(n+1)+ 5should millionbethen this with n=4+ adding another tells us Adding another shop is socially efficient ifcondition C(N,n 1) < C(N,n) shop is efficient that n(n+1) < 25 This requires that tN/4n - tN/4(n+1) > F which implies that n(n + 1) < tN/4F The monopolist operates too many shops and, more generally, provides too much product variety Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 24 Monopoly, Product Variety and Price Discrimination • Suppose that the monopolist delivers the product. – then it is possible to price discriminate • What pricing policy to adopt? – – – – charge every consumer his reservation price V the firm pays the transport costs this is uniform delivered pricing it is discriminatory because price does not reflect costs • Should every consumer be supplied? – – – – – suppose that there are n shops evenly spaced on Main Street cost to the most distant consumer is c + t/2n supply this consumer so long as V (revenue) > c + t/2n This is a weaker condition than without price discrimination. Price discrimination allows more consumers to be served. Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 25 Price Discrimination and Product Variety • How many shops should the monopolist operate now? Suppose that the monopolist has n shops and is supplying the entire market. Total revenue minus production costs is N.V – N.c Total transport costs plus set-up costs is C(N, n)=tN/4n + n.F So profit is p(N,n) = N.V – N.c – C(N,n) But then maximizing profit means minimizing C(N, n) The discriminating monopolist operates the socially optimal number of shops. Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 26 Bundling • Firms sell goods as bundles – selling two or more goods in a single package – complete stereo systems – fixed-price meals in restaurants • Firms also use tie-in sales: less restrictive than bundling – tie the sale of one good to the purchase of another – computer printers and printer cartridges – constraining the use of spare parts • Why? • Because it is profitable to do so! Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 27 Bundling: an example much can • Two television stations offered two oldHow Hollywood films How much can be charged for – Casablanca and Son of Godzilla be charged for If the films are sold Godzilla? • Arbitrage is possible between the stations separately total Casablanca? • Willingness revenue to pay is:is $19,000 $7,000 Willingness to Willingness to pay for pay for Casablanca Godzilla Station A $8,000 $2,500 Station B $7,000 $3,000 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 $2,500 28 How much can beBundling charged is forprofitable thebecause package? it exploits Bundling: an example Now suppose aggregate willingness that the two films are If and the films Willingness to sold Willingness Total payto bundled sold are as pay a package total pay for for Willingness as a package revenue is $20,000Godzilla Casablanca to pay Station A $8,000 $2,500 $10,500 Station B $7,000 $3,000 $10,000 $10,000 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 29 Bundling (cont.) • Extend this example to allow for – costs – mixed bundling: offering products in a bundle and separately Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 30 Consumer y Each has consumer Bundling: another example reservation price py1 that the firm one Suppose that thereAll areconsumers inSuppose buys exactly for goodsets 1 and py2p for in All consumers price region B buy 1 two goods and that unit of ap good for good 2 region A buy good 1 and price R2 good 2 2 x hasprovided that consumers differ inonlyConsumer both 2goods price for good price px1is less than her their reservation pricesreservation B A for good 1 and px2 for these goods price for good 2 reservation yconsumers All in All consumers in py2 region C buy region D buy p2 Consumers x neither good only good 1 px2 split into four groups D C px1 p1 py1 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 R1 31 Bundling: the example (cont.) Now consider pure bundling at some All consumers in pB E buy Consumers in theseprice two regions region R2 can buy each good eventhe though bundle their reservation price for one of Ethe goods is less than its Consumers cost All marginal consumers in pB c2 F c1 now split into two groups region F do not buy the bundle pB Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 R1 32 Mixed Bundling R2 pB p2 pB - p1 In this region Now consider mixed consumers buy Consumers in Good this 1 is sold bundling either theonly bundle region buy at price p1 or product 2 in this good 2 Consumers inGood this 2Consumers is sold region are willing to region also at price p 2 This leaves both goods. They buy the bundle buy two regions buy the bundle Consumers In this regionsplit consumers buy Consumers in this into four groups: either the bundle region buy nothing in this Consumers The bundle is sold buy the bundle or product 1 region at price pBbuy < p1only + pbuy only good 1 2 good 1 pB - p2 p1 pB Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 R1 buy only good 2 buy nothing 33 Mixed Bundling (cont.) Similarly, all consumers in this region buy only product 2 R2 The consumer x will buy only product 1 Consider consumer x with consumers reservationAll prices p1x for in Which is this Consumer surplus from Consumer surplus region from buy product 1 this and p2x for measure Her aggregate willingness buyingbuying product 1 isbundle the only is 1 product 2product to pay for the bundle is p1x -pp1 + p - p 1x p1x2x+ p2xB x pB p2 pB - p1 p2x pB - p2 p1 pB p1x R1 p1x+p2x Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 34 Mixed Bundling (cont.) • What should a firm actually do? • There is no simple answer – mixed bundling is generally better than pure bundling – but bundling is not always the best strategy • Each case needs to be worked out on its merits Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 35 An Example Four consumers; two products; MC1 = $100, MC2 = $150 Consumer Reservation Price for Good 1 Reservation Price for Good 2 Sum of Reservation Prices A $50 $450 $500 B $250 $275 $525 C $300 $220 $520 D $450 $50 $500 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 36 The example (cont.) Price $450 $300 $250 $50 Price $450 $275 $220 $50 Good 1: Marginal Cost $100 Quantity TotalConsider revenue simple Profit monopoly pricing 1 $450 $350 2 $400 $600 Good 1 should be sold 3 $750 $450 at $250 and good 2 at 4 $200 -$200 $450. Total profit Good 2: Marginal Cost + $150 is $450 $300 Quantity = Total $750revenue 1 2 3 4 $450 $550 $660 $200 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 Profit $300 $200 $210 -$400 37 The example (cont.) Now consider pure bundling Consumer A B C D Reservation Reservation Price forThe highest Price for bundle Good 1 price that Good 2 be can considered isbuy $500 All four consumers will $50 $450 the bundle and profit is 4x$500 $100) $250- 4x($150 + $275 = $1,000 $300 $220 $450 $50 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 Sum of Reservation Prices $500 $525 $520 $500 38 The example (cont.) Now consider mixed Take the monopoly prices p1 = $250; p2 = $450 and a bundle price pB = $500 bundling All four consumers buy something and profit is Reservation Reservation Sum of Consumer Price + for$150x2 Price for Reservation Can the$250x2 seller improve Good 1 Good 2 Prices = $800 on this? A $50 $450 $500 B $250 $275 $525 $500 C $300 $250 $220 $520 D $450 $250 $50 $500 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 39 The example (cont.) Try instead the prices p1 = $450; p2 = $450 and a bundle price pB = $520 This is actually the best Reservation that the Reservation All four consumers buy Consumer do for Price+forfirm can Price and profit is $300 Good 1 $270x2 + $350 = $1,190 A $50 Good 2 Sum of Reservation Prices $450 $450 $500 B $250 $275 $525 $520 C $300 $220 $520 D $450 $450 $50 $500 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 40 Bundling (cont.) • Bundling does not always work • Requires that there are reasonably large differences in consumer valuations of the goods • What about tie-in sales? – “like” bundling but proportions vary – allows the monopolist to make supernormal profits on the tied good – different users charged different effective prices depending upon usage – facilitates price discrimination by making buyers reveal their demands Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 41 Tie-in Sales • Suppose that a firm offers a specialized product – a camera? – that uses highly specialized film cartridges • Then it has effectively tied the sales of film cartridges to the purchase of the camera – this is actually what has happened with computer printers and ink cartridges • How should it price the camera and film? – suppose that marginal costs of the film and of making the camera are zero (to keep things simple) – suppose also that there are two types of consumer: high-demand and low-demand Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 42 Tie-In Sales: anthe Example Profit is $72 from each Suppose that $ $16 type of consumer firm leases the High-Demand Low-Demand product for $72 perSoConsumers this gives profit of Consumers Is this the best period $144 per pair of highthat Demand: P = 16 - Q Demand: P = 12 - Q and low-demand the firm can do? consumers $ $12 High-demand consumers buy 16 units $128 Low-demand consumers are willing to buy 12 units $72 16 Quantity Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 12 Quantity 43 Tie-In Sales: an Example $ $16 Profit is $70 from each Suppose that low-demand consumer: High-Demand Low-Demand the firm sets a So the firm $50 + $20 Consumers price of $2 percan set a Consumers lease charge of $50and $78 from each unit Demand: P = 16 - Qto each type of Demand: P = 12 -Q Consumer surplus high-demand consumer: for$50 low-demand consumer: it cannot + $28 $ Consumer surplus consumers is $50 discriminate giving $148 per pair of for high-demand $12 high-demand and lowconsumers is $98 Low-demand High-demand demand consumers buy 10 consumers buy 14 units units $98 $50 $2 $2 14 16 Quantity Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 10 12 Quantity 44 Tie-In Sales: Suppose that an Example $ $16 Profit is $72 from each the firm can High-Demand Low-Demand low-demand consumer bundle the two Consumers Consumers and $80 from each goods instead ProduceSo a bundled produce a second high-demand consumer Demand: P = 16of- Q Demand: P = 12 -Q tie them productbundle of camera of camera plus giving $150 per pair of plus 12-shot16-shot cartridge cartridge $ high-demand and lowHigh-demand High-demand consumers get $48 demand consumers will$12 pay $48 consumer surplus $80 for this bundled from buying it camera ($128 - $48) $72 Low-demand consumers can be sold this bundled product for $72 $72 $8 12 Quantity 16 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 12 Quantity 45 Complementary Goods • Complementary goods are goods that are consumed together – nuts and bolts – PC monitors and computer processors • How should these goods be produced? • How should they be priced? • Take the example of nuts and bolts – these are perfect complements: need one of each! • Assume that demand for nut/bolt pairs is: Q = A - (PB + PN) Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 46 Complementary goods (cont.) This demand curve can be written individually for nuts and bolts For bolts: QB = A - (PB + PN) For nuts: QN = A - (PB + PN) These give the inverse demands: PB = (A - PN) - QB PN = (A - PB) - QN These allow us to calculate profit maximizing prices Assume that nuts and bolts are produced by independent firms Each sets MR = MC to maximize profits MRB = (A - PN) - 2QB MRN = (A - PB) - 2QN Assume MCB = MCN = 0 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 47 Complementary goods (cont.) Therefore QB = (A - PN)/2 and PB = (A - PN) - QB = (A - PN)/2 by a symmetric argument PN = (A - PB)/2 The price set by each firm is affected by the price set by the other firm In equilibrium the price set by the two firms must be consistent Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 48 Complementary goods (cont.) PB A A/2 Pricing rule for the Nut Equilibrium is for Producer: Pricing rule two PN where = (A - these Pthe B)/2Bolt pricing rules Producer: Pintersect B = (A - PN)/2 A/3 A/3 A/2 A PN PB = (A - PN)/2 PN = (A - PB)/2 PN = A/2 - (A - PN)/4 = A/4 + PN/4 3PN/4 = A/4 PN = A/3 PB = A/3 PB + PN = 2A/3 Q = A - (PB+PN) = A/3 Profit of the Bolt Producer = PBQB = A2/9 Profit of the Nut Producer = PNQN = A2/9 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 49 Complementary goods (cont.) What happens if the two goods are produced by the same firm? Merger two firms The firm will set a price PNB of forthe a nut/bolt pair. Demand is now QNB =results A - PNBinsoconsumers that PNB = A - QNB Why? beingBecause chargedthe $ merged firm is the ablefirm to MRNB = A - 2QNBlower prices and coordinate the prices of making greater profits MR = MC = 0 A the two goods Q = A /2 NB PNB = A /2 Profit of the nut/bolt producer is PNBQNB = A2/4 A/2 Demand MR A/2 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 A Quantity 50 Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 51 Product variety (cont.) d < 1/4 We know that p(d) satisfies the following constraint: p(d) + t(1/2 - d) = V This gives: p(d) = V - t/2 + t.d p(d) = V - t/2 + t.d Aggregate profit is then: p(d) = (p(d) - c)N = (V - t/2 + t.d - c)N This is increasing in d so if d < 1/4 then d should be increased. Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 52 Product variety (cont.) d > 1/4 We now know that p(d) satisfies the following constraint: p(d) + t.d = V This gives: p(d) = V - t.d Aggregate profit is then: p(d) = (p(d) - c)N = (V - t.d - c)N This is decreasing in d so if d > 1/4 then d should be decreased. Industrial Organization: Chapter 4 53