AP LANG and COMP
Close Reading The Art and Craft of Analysis
Things you must know in order to accurately analyze a text:
1. SOAPSTone
2. Rhetorical Strategies:
a. Appeals (ethos, logos, pathos)
b. Style (diction, syntax, details, imagery, tone, etc.)
3. Why did the author choose these strategies for the particular audience, occasion, and/or
purpose?
a. This is the analysis part! Without this, you are merely summarizing the text.
b. Think about these questions:
i. HOW do the rhetorical strategies help the author achieve his/her purpose?
ii. WHY does the author choose those strategies for that particular audience and
for that particular occasion?
Getting the Big Idea
General
What impression does the whole passage make upon you: its mood and
tone?
What is the most striking part of the passage? Annotate with a star.
Diction
Are most of the words abstract or concrete? If they are abstract, your
passage may be more philosophical or theoretical. If they are more concrete,
your passage may be more narrative and descriptive.
Are there any unfamiliar or unusual words or usages? Circle them.
Are verbs especially noticeable? Underline examples.
Are adjectives or adverbs especially vivid? Underline examples.
Syntax
Are the sentences especially long (over twenty words) or short (under eight
words)?
Once you’ve identified the information above, it’s time to begin putting your thoughts and ideas
into a format that proves you have accurately analyzed the text. There are many ways to write an
effective rhetorical analysis essay, but you should always utilize 1-3 above.
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When you write your response, be sure you understand what the prompt asks you
to do. Usually you will be asked to analyze the craft or the strategies an author uses
in his/her passage and how those strategies apply to something else. There will
usually be an application. Here are some rhetorical analysis prompts. They occur
after an introduction.
2013: Then, in a well-developed essay, analyze the rhetorical strategies Louv uses to develop his
argument about the separation between people and nature. Support your analysis with specific references
to the text.
2012: Then write an essay in which you analyze the rhetorical strategies President Kennedy
uses to achieve his purpose. Support your analysis with specific references to the text.
2011: Then write an essay in which you analyze the rhetorical strategies Kelley uses to convey
her message about child labor to her audience. Support your analysis with specific references to
the text.
2010: Read the following excerpt from the letter and write an essay that analyzes how Banneker
uses rhetorical strategies to argue against slavery.
2009: Then write an essay in which you analyze how Wilson’s satire illustrates the
unproductive nature of such discussions.
2008: Then, in a well-written essay, analyze how Barry uses rhetorical strategies to characterize
scientific research.
2007: Then write an essay in which you analyze the strategies Sanders uses to develop his
perspective about moving.
2006: Then write an essay in which you analyze how Price crafts the text to reveal her view of
United States culture.
HOW TO WRITE: AP Rhetorical Analysis Paragraphs and Essays—taken from the following
website: http://www.franklin.kyschools.us/Downloads/How%20to%20write%20a%20rhetorical%20analysis%20essay.pdf
Introduction
The introductory paragraph to an analysis essay is usually brief. However, it must contain some
essential information.
Put SOAPSTone in your introduction and follow this format:
FORMAT:
1. Speaker, Occasion, and Subject
(Writer’s credentials), (writer’s first and last name), in his/her (type of text), (title of text),
(strong verb–see list at end of this handout) (writer’s subject).
Well-known essayist and writer, Joan Didion, in her essay, “The Santa Ana,” describes
the dramatic mood altering effects of the Santa Ana winds on human behavior.
2. Purpose (Writer’s last name)’s purpose is to (what the writer does in the text).
Didion’s purpose is to impress upon readers the idea that the winds themselves change
the way people act and react.
3. Audience
He/she adopts a[n] (adjective describing the attitude/feeling conveyed by the writer) tone
in order to (verb phrase describing what the writer wants readers to do/think) in his/her
(intended audience).
She creates a dramatic tone in order to convey to her readers the idea that the winds are
sinister and their effects inescapable.
EXAMPLE:
Novelist, Amy Tan, in her narrative essay, “Fish Cheeks,” recounts an embarrassing
Christmas Eve dinner when she was 14 years old. Tan’s purpose is to convey the idea that, at
fourteen, she wasn’t able to recognize the love her mother had for her or the sacrifices she made.
She adopts a sentimental tone in order to appeal to similar feelings and experiences in her adult
readers.
Body
This is the analysis part! This is where you include a detailed explanation of strategies used by
the writer. When writing an analysis, it is best if you work chronologically through the text. This
means that you start at the beginning of the text and work your way through it by discussing what
the writer is saying and the effectiveness of the strategies he/she is using at the beginning, middle,
and end of the text. Sometimes this means that you will discuss each paragraph (one at a time),
and sometimes this means that you will divide the text into sections and discuss the beginning,
middle, and end of the text. Whether you discuss each paragraph or each section depends on the
length and organization of the text itself.
To help you move chronologically through the text, there are transition words you can use.
begins
contrasts
ends
opens
shifts to
moves to
closes
juxtaposes
Other transition words:
Accordingly
after all
afterward
also
although
and
but
consequently
despite
earlier
even though
for example
for instance
however
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
in conclusion
in contrast
in fact
in the meantime
in the same way
indeed
just as... so
meanwhile
moreover
nevertheless
not only... but also
now
on the contrary
on the other hand
on the whole
otherwise
regardless
shortly
similarly
specifically
still
that is
then
therefore
though
thus
yet
Every analysis paragraph MUST: Identify the part of the text you are analyzing by using
transition words and strong verbs to explain what is being said. Identify the strongest
rhetorical strategies used in that particular section. This includes incorporating specific
text examples (exact words from the text –see last page of this handout for proper format)
into your own words. Do NOT try to discuss every strategy the writer uses; pick the
strongest! Clearly and specifically explain how the rhetorical strategies are used to help
the writer achieve his purpose and reach his audience.
The above items must be woven together seamlessly into one sophisticated paragraph of
the body of your analysis essay. A sample format is below:
FORMAT and EXAMPLE [from Pres. Reagan’s speech after the space shuttle Challenger
explosion in the 1980s]:
1.The first sentence identifies which section of the text you are discussing and the main idea of
that section.
(Writer’s last name) (transition word) his/her (type of text) by (strong verb) that (main
idea of this section of the text).
Reagan begins his tribute to the Challenger astronauts by acknowledging that the shuttle
accident has appropriately postponed his planned State of the Union address and by
expressing the depth of his and his wife’s personal grief.
2. The second sentence conveys the writer’s support for the main idea by identifying and
providing a specific example for one rhetorical strategy used by the writer. [This sentence is
repeated if you want to discuss more than one rhetorical strategy.]
He appeals to the mournful emotions of the audience by admitting that he and Nancy are
“pained to the core” (3), that today is rightfully a “day for mourning and remembering”
(2-3), and that the accident is “truly a national loss” (4).
3. The third sentence explains how the rhetorical strategies you discussed in the previous
sentences help the writer achieve his purpose by using an in order to statement.
He joins in this time of mourning in order to unify the nation and humbly admit that “we
share this pain with all of the people of our country” (4).
4. The fourth sentence identifies the effect of the writer’s use of these rhetorical strategies on the
audience.
This outpouring of emotion from the president conveys a calming tone that reassures the
Nation that their grief is both understandable and proper.
Put it all together and this is what one paragraph of the body of a rhetorical analysis essay might
look like:
Reagan begins his tribute to the Challenger astronauts by acknowledging that the shuttle
accident has appropriately postponed his planned State of the Union address and by
expressing the depth of his and his wife’s personal grief. He appeals to the mournful
emotions of the audience by admitting that he and Nancy are “pained to the core” (3),
that today is rightfully a “day for mourning and remembering” (2-3), and that the
accident is “truly a national loss” (4). He joins in this time of mourning in order to unify
the nation and humbly admit that “we share this pain with all of the people of our
country” (4). This outpouring of emotion from the president conveys a calming tone that
reassures the Nation that their grief is both understandable and proper.
Conclusion
The conclusion is probably the easiest part. Be brief. In one
-two sentences, simply remind your reader of the things you said in the introduction.
Strong vs. Weak Verbs
To help you move away from summary and toward ANALYSIS, you need to begin to incorporate
strong verbs into your writing when discussing the writer’s rhetorical choices. Below is a list of
verbs that are considered weak because they imply summary and a list of verbs that are
considered strong because they imply analysis.
Strive to use the stronger verbs in your essays to help push yourself away from summary and
toward analysis: “The writer flatters...” NOT “The writer says...”
WEAK VERBS (Summary)
says
goes on to say
this quote shows
states
relates
tells
explains
shows
STRONG VERBS (Analysis)
implies
trivializes
flatters
qualifies
processes
describes
suggests
denigrates
lionizes
dismisses
analyzes
questions
compares
vilifies
praises
supports
enumerates
contrasts
emphasizes
demonizes
establishes
admonishes
expounds
argues
defines
ridicules
minimizes
narrates
lists
warns
Powerful and meaningful verbs to use in your analyses: Alternatives to “show”
Acknowledge
Compare
Defend
Elaborate
Address
Complicate
Demonstrate
Emphasize
Analyze
Confine
Deny
Employ
Apply
Connect
Describe
Enable
Argue
Consider
Determine
Engage
Assert
Construct
Differentiate
Enhance
Augment
Contradict
Disagree
Establish
Broaden
Correct
Discard
Evaluate
Calculate
Create
Discover
Exacerbate
Capitalize
Convince
Discuss
Examine
Characterize
Critique
Dismiss
Exclude
Claim
Declare
Distinguish
Exhibit
Clarify
Deduce
Duplicate
Expand
Explain
Exploit
Express
Extend
Facilitate
Feature
Forecast
Formulate
Fracture
Generalize
Group
Guide
Hamper
Hypothesize
Identify
Illuminate
Illustrate
Impair
Implement
Implicate
Imply
Improve
Include
Incorporate
Indicate
Induce
Initiate
Inquire
Instigate
Integrate
Interpret
Intervene
Invert
Isolate
Justify
Locate
Loosen
Maintain
Manifest
Manipulate
Measure
Merge
Minimize
Modify
Monitor
Necessitate
Negate
Nullify
Obscure
Observe
Obtain
Offer
Omit
Optimize
Organize
Outline
Overstate
Persist
Point out
Possess
Predict
Present
Probe
Produce
Promote
Propose
Prove
Provide
Qualify
Quantify
Question
Realize
Recommend
Reconstruct
Redefine
Reduce
Refer
Reference
Refine
Reflect
Refute
Regard
Reject
Relate
Rely
Remove
Repair
Report
Represent
Resolve
Retrieve
Reveal
Revise
Separate
Shape
Signify
Simulate
Solve
Specify
Structure
Suggest
Summarize
Support
Suspend
Sustain
Tailor
Terminate
Testify
Theorize
Translate
Undermine
Understand
Unify
Utilize
Validate
Vary
View
Vindicate
Yield
Analyzing DICTION
Diction is simply the words the writer chooses to convey a particular meaning.
When analyzing diction, look for specific words or short phrases that seem stronger than the
others (ex. Bragg’s use of slingshot instead of travel). Diction is NEVER the entire sentence!
Also, look for a pattern (or similarity) in the words the writer chooses (ex. Do the words imply
sadness, happiness, etc?). This pattern helps to create a particular kind of diction.
This pattern can also include repetition of the same words or phrases. Repeating the same word or
phrase helps the reader emphasize a point, feeling, etc. Effective diction is shaped by words that
are clear, concrete, and exact. Good writers avoid words like pretty, nice, and bad because they
are not specific enough. Instead, they rely on words that invoke a specific effect in order to bring
the reader into the event being described.
Examples: A coat isn’t torn; it is tattered. The US Army does not want revenge; it is thirsting for
revenge. A door does not shut; it thuds.
Diction depends on subject, purpose, occasion, and audience.
 The subject often determines how specific or sophisticated the diction needs to be. For
example, articles on technology are filled with a specialized language. Many topics
generate special vocabulary to convey meaning.
 The writer’s purpose –whether to persuade, entertain, inform – partly determines diction.
Words chosen to impart a particular effect on the reader reflect the writer’s purpose. For
example, if an author’s purpose is to inform, the reader should expect straightforward
diction.
On the other hand, if the author’s purpose is to entertain, the readers will likely encounter
words used in ironic, playful, or unexpected ways.
 Diction also depends on occasion. Formal diction is reserved for scholarly writing and
serious texts. Informal diction is often used in narrative essays and newspaper editorials.
Colloquial diction and slang are typically used to capture the language of a particular
time frame or culture.
 Finally, the type of diction a writer uses depends on the audience (readers, listeners). An
author who uses sophisticated diction knows he is writing for an intelligent audience. An
author who uses more informal diction knows he is writing for an audience of varied
intelligence.
When you are writing an essay in which you are analyzing the diction of the writer:
Avoid saying: “The writer used diction...” –since this is obvious (diction IS the words on the
page; without them, the page would be blank ).
Instead, say: “The writer creates a ______________ diction through the use of...” OR “The
language of the text is ___________________.”
Below are just a few words that you may use to describe the type of diction used by the writer.
You may want to add words to this list or circle the ones you use frequently.
abstract
academic
ambiguous
biting
bombastic
brusque
cacophonous
casual
caustic
colloquial
colorful
common
concrete
connotative
conversational
crisp
cultured
curt
denotative
detached
divisive
emotional
esoteric
euphemistic
euphonious
everyday
exact
fanciful
figurative
flowery
folksy
formal
grandiose
idiomatic
inflammatory
inflated
informal
insincere
jargon
learned
literal
loaded
lyrical
melodious
monosyllabic
nostalgic
obscene
obscure
offensive
ordinary
ornate
passionate
patriotic
pedantic
picturesque
plain
poetic
political
polysyllabic
precise
pretentious
provincial
romantic
scholarly
sentimental
shocking
sincere
slang
subdued
symbolic
tame
technical
trite
unifying
uppity
vague
vulgar
OTHERS:
abstract
diction
concrete
diction
elevated/
formal
low/informal
Analyzing SYNTAX
Syntax refers to the way words are arranged within sentences.
Schemes: One aspect of syntax is schemes. Most English sentences follow a subject-verb-object
pattern (ex. I went to the store.) Deviating from this pattern can serve to add emphasize to the
author’s ideas.
Sentence Length: Another aspect of syntax is sentence length. Good writers will use a variety for
emphasis.
Short sentences –imply straightforwardness
Long sentences –imply descriptive, detailed writing
Sentence Type: A third aspect of syntax is sentence type. Again, good writers use a variety.
 Simple: subject-verb (I went to the store.)
 Compound: 2 independent clauses joined by a conjunction (I went to the store, and I
bought candy.)
Complex: independent clause and dependent clause (While traveling to the store, I saw
my friend.)
 Compound-complex: 2 independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses (While
traveling to the store, I saw my friend, and she gave me money for candy.)
 Declarative: statement (I went to the store.)
 Exclamatory: strong feeling (What a wonderful candy store!)
 Interrogative: question (Is this a store?)
 Imperative: command (Go to the store.)
Punctuation: A final aspect of syntax is punctuation. Yes, good writers use a variety here too.
 Semicolon (;) gives equal weight to two or more independent clauses in a sentence.
Writers use this to reinforce parallel ideas and show how both ideas are equally important
 Colon (:) directs the reader’s attention to the words that follow. Writers use this to show
the reader that the information after the colon is important.
 Dash (-) marks a sudden change in thought or tone or sets off a brief summary
SYNTAX WORDS
balanced sentence
imperative
parallel structure
complex sentence
interrogative
periodic sentence
compound sentence
interruption
repetition
compound-complex sentence
inversion
rhetorical question
declarative
juxtaposition
simple sentence
exclamatory
loose/cumulative sentence

Analyzing TONE
Tone is the writer’s attitude or feeling about the subject of his text. It is a special kind of
rhetorical strategy because tone is created by the writer’s use of all of the other rhetorical
strategies.
 Details & Lack of Details
 Diction: word choice & Tropes: The use of a word, phrase, or image in a way not intended by
its normal signification.

Syntax: sentence structure & Schemes: A change in standard word order or pattern.
o
Tropes and Schemes: In classical rhetoric, the tropes and schemes fall under the canon
of style. These stylistic features certainly do add spice to writing and speaking. And they
are commonly thought to be persuasive because they dress up otherwise mundane
language; the idea being that we are persuaded by the imagery and artistry because we
find it entertaining. There is much more to tropes and schemes than surface
considerations. Indeed, politicians and pundits use these language forms to create specific
social and political effects by playing on our emotions.
Tropes and schemes are collectively known as figures of speech. The following is a short list of some of
the most common figures of speech.
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Anaphora: A scheme in which the same word or phrase is repeated at the beginning of successive
phrases, clauses, or sentences. Example: "I will fight for you. I will fight to save Social Security. I
will fight to raise the minimum wage."
Anastrophe: A scheme in which normal word order is changed for emphasis. Example: "Ask not
what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."
Antithesis: A scheme that makes use of contrasting words, phrases, sentences, or ideas for
emphasis (generally used in parallel grammatical structures). Example: " Americans in need are
not strangers, they are citizens, not problems, but priorities."
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Apostrophe: A scheme in which a person or an abstract quality is directly addressed, whether
present or not. Example: "Freedom! You are a beguiling mistress."
Epistrophe: A scheme in which the same word is repeated at the end of successive phrases,
clauses, or sentences. Example: “I believe we should fight for justice. You believe we should fight
for justice. How can we not, then, fight for justice?”
Hyperbole: A trope composed of exaggerated words or ideals used for emphasis and not to be
taken literally. Example: "I've told you a million times not to call me a liar!"
Irony: A trope in which a word or phrase is used to mean the opposite of its literal meaning.
Example: "I just love scrubbing the floor."
Litotes: A trope in which one makes a deliberate understatement for emphasis. Example: Young
lovers are kissing and an observer says: "I think they like each other."
Metaphor: A trope in which a word or phrase is transferred from its literal meaning to stand for
something else. Unlike a simile, in which something is said to be "like" something else, a
metaphor says something is something else. Example: "Debt is a bottomless sea."
Metonymy: A trope that substitutes an associated word for one that is meant. Example: Using
"top brass" to refer to military officers.
Oxymoron: A trope that connects two contradictory terms. Example: “Bill is a cheerful
pessimist.”
Personification: A trope in which human qualities or abilities are assigned to abstractions or
inanimate objects. Example: “Integrity thumbs its nose at pomposity.”
Pun: A play on words in which a homophone is repeated but used in a different sense. Examples:
“She was always game for any game."
Rhetorical Question: A trope in which the one asks a leading question. Example: "With all the
violence on TV today, is it any wonder kids bring guns to school?"
Simile: A trope in which one states a comparison between two things that are not alike but have
similarities. Unlike metaphors, similes employ "like" or "as." Example: "Her eyes are as blue as a
robin's egg."
Synecdoche: A trope in which a part stands for the whole. Example: "Tom just bought a fancy
new set of wheels."
Zeugma: A trope in which one verb governs several words, or clauses, each in a different sense.
Example: “He stiffened his drink and his spine.”
When discussing an author’s tone, you must be careful to choose the right word. Below is a list of
tone words.
Use them in your essays to describe the tone of the piece but only if you are sure you know the
word’s meaning (not sure –look it up in a dictionary).
When writing your essay, avoid saying: “The writer uses tone” since ALL writers use a tone of
some kind. Instead, say: “The writer creates a __________ tone...”
abhorrence
abrasive
abrupt
abstract
accusatory
admiring
admonitory
affected
afraid
ambivalent
amused
amusing
TONE WORDS
analytical
authentic
angry
authoritative
annoyed
awe
anxious
awkward
apathetic
baffled
apologetic
bantering
apprehensive
bemused
approving
benevolent
argumentative
bitter
artful
blunt
audacious
bold
austere
bookish
boring
bucolic
callous
calm
candid
candid
cautious
cautious
cerebral
ceremonial
cheery
childish
childish
cliché
clinical
cold
comic
compassionate
compelling
complementary
complicated
complimentary
concerned
conciliatory
concise
condemning
condescending
confident
confiding
confused
contemptuous
contented
contrived
corny
critical
critical
curious
cynical
dark
delightful
dense
derisive
despairing
desperate
detached
detached
didactic
disappointed
disbelieving
disdainful
disgusted
dismayed
disparaging
distinctive
disturbed
down-to-earth
dramatic
dreamy
dreary
dull
earnest
economical
edgy
effective
effusive
elated
elated
elegant
elegiac
elitist
eloquent
embittered
endearing
energetic
enlightening
entertaining
enthusiastic
erudite
exaggerating
exuberant
facetious
factual
factual
fanciful
fascinated
fearful
flippant
fluent
focused
forced
forceful
foreboding
forgettable
forgiving
formal
formulaic
forthright
fresh
frivolous
funny
furious
giddy
gimmicky
glib
gloomy
graceful
grandiose
grim
gritty
grudging
gutsy
hackneyed
happy
harsh
haughty
haunting
hollow
hollow
honest
hopeful
hopeless
horrific
humorous
hyperbolic
idealistic
idiosyncratic
imaginative
impartial
impassioned
impulsive
incisive
incredulous
indifferent
indignant
indulgent
inflammatory
informal
informative
insightful
insisting
insolent
instructive
instructive
insubstantial
intellectual
interesting
intimate
inviting
irate
ironic
irrelevant
irreverent
irritated
joking
jovial
joyful
judgmental
labored
lackadaisical
lackluster
laudatory
learned
light
lighthearted
lofty
loving
lucid
lush
lyrical
matter of fact
maudlin
meditative
melancholic
melancholy
melodramatic
memorable
mock-heroic
mocking
mock-serious
moralizing
morbid
mordant
mournful
narrow
nostalgic
objective
obvious
offbeat
offensive
opinionated
optimistic
ordinary
ostentatious
outraged
outrageous
overdone
paradoxical
passionate
patronizing
peaceful
pedantic
pedestrian
pejorative
pensive
persuasive
pessimistic
pessimistic
piquant
pitiful
pitiful
plaintive
plaintive
playful
poetic
pompous
preachy
predictable
pretentious
profound
prosaic
proud
provocative
provocative
purple
puzzled
querulous
questioning
rambling
reader-friendly
realistic
reflective
refreshing
regretful
reminiscent
repetitive
repressed
reproachful
resigned
resigned
respectful
restrained
revealing
reverent
rhapsodic
sad
sanctimonious
sarcastic
sardonic
satiric
satisfied
scornful
seductive
self-indulgent
sensuous
sentimental
sentimental
serene
serious
severe
shallow
sharp
shocked
silly
simple
simplistic
sincere
sober
solemn
somber
sophomoric
spicy
spiteful
stiff
strident
striking
strong
substantive
subtle
superficial
surprise
surprising
suspicious
sweet
sweet
sympathetic
taunting
thorough
thoughtful
threatening
tired
tiresome
tolerant
trite
troubled
unconvincing
underdone
uneven
unsympathetic
upset
urbane
urgent
vexed
vibrant
wary
whimsical
wise
wistful
witty
wordy
wry
zealous
thought-provoking
MOOD WORDS:
Sometimes the TONE will set a MOOD.
bleak
lonely
dark
ominous
delirious
peaceful
dismal
playful
eerie
quizzical
elegiac
reproachful
haunting
satiric
serene
soothing
suspenseful
tense
threatening
uplifting
whimsical
CHARACTER WORDS:
Sometimes you need to describe the SPEAKER.
absorbed
carefree
aggressive
careless
aloof
cautious
ambitious
churlish
amorous
compassionate
anxious
conceited
apathetic
conniving
argumentative
curious
arrogant
deceitful
bitter
demure
bored
detached
devious
devoted
dishonest
easygoing
envious
exacting
frantic
fretful
gregarious
intelligent
irritable
loquacious
manipulative
mendacious
naïve
nervous
noble
outgoing
patient
picky
scrupulous
self-involved
sincere
sloppy
spontaneous
suspicious
talkative
testy
uninvolved
unpredictable
vindictive
welcoming
wise
worried