Foundations
of
Philosophy
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Philosophy is:
A search for meaning and truth
The general beliefs and attitudes of an individual or group
The body of principles underlying a branch of learning or
major discipline
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Original Definition
“Love of Wisdom”
Definition was developed by Socrates
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Three Major Areas of Philosophy
Metaphysics/Ontology - the nature of reality
Axiology (Morality & Ethics)
deontology, behavior,
& the nature of values
Epistemology - the nature of knowledge
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Metaphysics/Ontology
Concerned with theories of the nature of
reality:
Why does the universe exist?
How did it come into being?
Is mankind free?
Is there a God?
What is reality?
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Axiology
concerned with theories of value
Three major divisions of axiology:
deontology/morality
What is right and wrong?
What is good and evil?
ethics
• What is right behavior?
aesthetics
• What is beautiful and ugly?
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Epistemology
Concerned with theories of
the nature of knowledge
Epistemological questions:
What is “Knowledge?”
How do people learn?
What knowledge is of utmost value?
What are the different types of knowledge?
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Philosophical
Schools of Thought
Idealism
Realism
Pragmatism
Existentialism
Reconstructionism
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Idealism
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Idealism (Idea-ism)
Idealist believe that
ideas are the only true reality.
The material world is characterized by
change, instability, and uncertainty; some
ideas are enduring
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Idealism
We should be concerned primarily with the
search for truth. Since truth is perfect and
eternal, it cannot be found in the world of
matter that is both imperfect and constantly
changing.
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The Dialectic (Hegel)
Antithesis
“War is
bad”
Thesis
“War is
good”
Synthesis
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Leaders of Idealism
Socrates (469-399 BC)
Plato (427-347 BC)
St. Augustine (350-430)
Descartes (1596-1650)
Berkeley (1685-1753)
Kant (1724-1804)
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Socrates
Regarded as the father of philosophy
Believed we learned through questioning
(the Socratic method)
Wrote nothing, what we know of his views
were written by his followers,
most notably Plato
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Plato
A student of Socrates
Known as the father of idealism
Operated a school named
the “Academy”
Believed the world is a
pale shadow of the
Platonic Sphere
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Plato
Those who demonstrate proficiency in the
dialectic would continue their education and
become philosophers in positions of power
to lead the state toward the highest good
(the Philosopher-King)
Believed both boys and girls
should be educated and girls
should be equals.
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Augustine (354-430)
Born in North Africa (Roman citizen)
Mother - Christian, Father - Pagan
Attended Roman Primary School
grammar and literature emphasized
At 16 went to Carthage and studied:
rhetoric, music, geometry, grammar, mathematics
During his younger days “He lied,
he stole, he wenched.”
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Augustine. . .
Became a grammaticus in his native town
Taught rhetoric in Carthage, Rome, Milan
While in his 30’s was converted to
Christianity, took his holy orders and
became a great evangelist and priest.
Found great favor in the church and
became a great religious leader.
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Augustine
People do not create knowledge; God has
already created it,
but people can discover it
through trying to find God.
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Augustine’s Beliefs
Women were held in low regard (this view
was incorporated into the church and held
for a thousand years)
Only a few people possessed the mental
ability to quest for the truth. Therefore
most people should rely on the
church for knowledge.
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Augustine’s Beliefs
Augustine used Greek writings but began to have
doubts how people who did not know God could
write anything which could be of value to
Christians.
In 401 the Church outlawed pagan writings such
as Plato and Aristotle (even the church leaders
were not allowed to read the
ancient literature). This continued
for 1000 years.
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
The Church and Idealism
Idealism has exerted a great amount of
influence on Christianity.
For centuries the Christian church was the
creator and protector of schooling.
Generations educated in these schools were
indoctrinated with the idealist
point of view (including early
American education).
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Descartes (1596-1650)
A renown mathematician
Wrestled with the question of what was real
and did he really exist (perhaps he was a
dream). He finally concluded:
“I think, therefore I am”
Thinking and ideas are the
ultimate truth.
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George Berkeley (1685-1753)
Existence is dependent upon some mind to
know it, and if there are no minds, nothing
would exist unless it is perceived in the
mind of God.
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Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
“…the greatest and most difficult problem to
which a man can devote himself is the problem of
education…”
Education should teach students how to think
according to principles moral laws, moral ideals and
moral imperatives
Enlightenment is the goal of
education
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The Idealist and the Chair
To an idealist, the
concept of “chair” is
important. You could
destroy all the chairs
in the world but they
would still exist in the
mind. The idea of a
chair is the ultimate
truth.
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Realism
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Realism
Reality, knowledge and value exist
independent of the human mind. Trees,
sticks and stones exist whether or not there
is a human mind to perceive them.
Ideas must be subject to public verification
must be proven through scientific
experimentation
“Science for the sake of science”
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Realism
Universal properties of objects remain
constant and never change, whereas
particular components do change
Need to study nature systematically
Deductive reasoning - truth is derived
from generalizations
Earth is the center of the universe
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Leaders of Realism
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
John Locke (1632-1704)
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Ideas may be important but a proper study
of matter could lead us to better and more
distinct ideas.
Golden Mean - a path between extremes
Balance is key - body and mind operate
together in a balanced whole
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Aquinas (1225-1274)
God created matter; therefore it must be ok
to learn about it
This view helped lead civilization out of the
dark ages, replaced the influence of
Augustine
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Aquinas
Truth was passed from God to Humans by
divine revelation, but God also
has endowed humans with
the reasoning ability to
seek out truth.
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Bacon (1561-1626)
Novum Organum - challenged Aristotelian
logic
Science must be concerned with inquiry,
pure and simple with no preconceived
notions
We need to examine all previously accepted
knowledge
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Bacon (1561-1626)
Need to rid our mind of “idols”
Idol of the Den - we believe things because of
limited experience
Idol of the Tribe - we believe things because many
people believe them
Idol of the Marketplace - we are misled by
language
Idol of the Theatre - Religion and philosophy may
prevent us from seeing the world objectively
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Known as the father of inductive reasoning
--important logical form
(arrive at generalizations from systematic
observations of particulars)
Died as a result of the only experiment he
performed - stuffed a dead chicken with
snow to see if it would preserve the flesh,
caught a cold and died
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
John Locke (1632-1704)
At birth, the mind is a blank sheet of paper a ‘tabula rasa’
All ideas are derived from experience by
way of sensation and reflection
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The Realist and the Chair
To a realist, the
actuality of “chair” is
important. A realist
would measure the
chair, weigh it,
examine the physical
characteristics, etc.
The fact that the chair
exists is the ultimate
truth.
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Pragmatism
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Pragmatism
The root of the word Pragmatism is a Greek
word meaning “work”.
It is primarily a 20th century philosophy
developed by Americans.
Truth is what works in the real world. We
must keep the desired end in mind.
Ideas should be applied to solving
problems; including social problems.
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Leaders in Pragmatism
Auguste Comte, 1798-1857
Not a pragmatist but emphasized
using science to solve social problems
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Leaders in Pragmatism
Charles Darwin, 1809-1882
Reality is not found in Being, but
in Becoming
Reality is open-ended, in process,
with no fixed end.
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
American Pragmatists
Charles Sanders Pierce, 1839-1914
Widely acknowledged as the father of pragmatism
Wrote an article on “How to make our Ideas
Clear” in Popular Science Monthly that is
regarded as the basis for pragmatism.
True knowledge of anything depends upon
verification of our ideas in actual experience
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
American Pragmatists
William James, 1842-1910
The truth of an idea is its “workability”
Truth is not absolute and immutable; rather it is
made in actual, real-life
James called his philosophy “radical empiricism”
James’s 1907 book “Pragmatism”
did much to promote pragmatism.
Rufus Stimson, a leader in agricultural education,
studied under James.
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
American Pragmatists
John Dewey, 1859-1952
Need to concentrate on real-life problems
Sought practical solutions for practical problems
How We Think
Felt Difficulty
Define the problem
Formulate possible solutions
Examine & Evaluate possible solutions
Accept or reject solutions
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
The Pragmatist and the Chair
To a pragmatist, the
use of the “chair” is
important. What is the
purpose of the chair
and does it fulfil that
purpose? The
“workability” of a
chair is the ultimate
truth.
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Reconstructionism
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Reconstructionism
Society is in need of constant reconstruction
Such social change involves both a
reconstruction of education and the use of
education in reconstructing society
Problems are viewed holistically
Futuristic thinking (utopian thinking)
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Reconstructionism
Do not believe preparing students for the
world as it exists today will be sufficient
(too much emphasis on the status quo)
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Reconstuctionists want to:
link thought with action
theory with practice
intellect with activism
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Noted Reconstructionists
George S. Counts
Theodore Brameld
Paole Freire
Karl Marx
Ivan Illich
John Dewey (he is also recognized as a
pragmatist)
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
The Reconstructionist
and the Chair
To a reconstructionist,
the redesign of the
“chair” to better serve
the needs of society is
important. How can
the chair be improved
to prepare society for
the future?
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Existentialism
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Existentialism
Received new emphasis in the 60s and 70s
Civil rights
Women rights
Individual rights
Special needs
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Existentialism
Traditional philosophies consider questions
about the nature of knowledge, truth and
meaning but:
Existentialists are concerned with
how these things are significant
within the lived experiences of
individuals.
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Noted Existentialists
Soren Kierkegaard
Martin Heidigger
Martin Buber
Jean-Paul Sartre
Fredrich Neitzche
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The Existentialist and the Chair
To an existentialist, the
individuals use of “chair”
is important. Whatever the
individual wants to do
with the chair is
important. The experience
of the individual with the
chair is the ultimate truth.
Ancient World History – The Meadows School
Match the philosophy
to the image
Idealism
Realism
Pragmatism
Reconstructionism
Existentialism
Ancient World History – The Meadows School