VII. Cook’s Expeditions
A) The voyages of Captain James Cook receive
credit as the first sea expeditions devoted to
methodical,scientific oceanography.
1) His reports changed the western view of the
world.
2) He discovered Australia, New
Zealand,
many islands in the South Pacific, the
Hawaiian Islands, the West Coast of the US
and Canada, the Bering Strait and the Antarctic
Circle.
3) A major contribution to Cook’s voyages was
the invention of the chronometer.
a) In 1735, John Harrison invented a
clock that runs accurately at sea.
This made it possible to determine
longitude accurately.
VIII. The United States Exploring Expedition
A) Under command of Lt. Charles Wilkes, it was one of
the first significant scientific expeditions
launched by
the US.
B) The objective was to explore the southern
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, to collect
specimens, and to map, illustrate and
provide text to document their discoveries.
C) The most outstanding achievement of the US
Exploring Expedition was proving the
existence of Antarctica.
D) The Father of Physical Oceanography
Matthew Maury
1) Between 1842-1855, Matthew Maury published
many detailed works on sea navigation. He
earned global acclaim for his work and his data
was adopted worldwide.
a) In 1855, he published The Physical
Geography of the Sea, which is now
considered the first textbook on modern
oceanography and he is remembered today as
the father of physical oceanography.
IX. Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
A) The Beagle began it’s five-year voyage with
Charles
Darwin as the ship’s naturalist in
1831. The H.M.S.
Beagle ultimately circled the Earth.
1) Darwin noted that coral grows in relatively
shallow, warm, upper depths.
a) But, coral reefs extend deeper than
coral grows. Darwin observed the massive
reefs must form when the sea floor slowly
sinks and coral grows upward from its
base to remain in shallow water.
2) Darwin is renowned for his theories on
selection and the evolution of species.
a) In 1859, he published The Origin of
Species.
natural
X. The Challenger Expedition
A) The Challenger expedition (1872-1876), is
known and recognized as the first devoted
entirely to marine science.
1) The two men responsible for the mission were
Scottish professor Sir Charles Wyville Thomson
and British naturalist Sir John Murray.
2) Among its accomplishments and discoveries,
the expedition:
a) Took the first soundings deeper than 4,000
meters (13,123 feet) – 8,200 meters
(26,900
feet) in the Marianas Trench.
b) Captured biological samples in midwater
and along the bottom with a towed
device.
c) Discovered marine organisms in the
deepest parts of the ocean, contrary to
popular belief at the time.
d) Sampled and illustrated plankton in
various habitats and depths not
previously studied.
e) Cataloged and identified 715 new genera
and 4,717 new species.
XI. The Oceanography Explosion
A) The Industrial Revolution spearheaded the
growth and expansion of marine sciences.
This included:
1) Better ships made of iron with steam engines.
2) Improvements in the design and building
of research equipment.
3) The advent of the submarine.
4) Global conflict helping to accelerate
research in science and technology.
B) Three Expeditions
1) The German Meteor Expedition (1925)
a) Crossed the Atlantic 14 times in two
years.
b) Data collected established patterns for ocean
water circulation, nutrient dispersal, and
plankton growth.
c) Primary accomplishment was mapping the
Atlantic seafloor with echo-sounding
technology.
2) The United States Atlantis Expedition – 1931
a) The first ship specifically designed and
built for ocean studies.
b) Atlantis added to the work of the Meteor
as well as confirmed the existence of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge and mapped it.
3) The H.M.S. Challenger II Expedition – 1951
a) Mission to measure the depths of
Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans.
the
b) Used eco-sounding technology for mapping.
c) Challenger II’s most noted discovery was
finding the deepest known part of the
At 10,838 meters (35,558 feet) deep,
this is still the deepest known place in the
ocean.
world.
d) This spot, located in the Marianas Trench, was
named Challenger Deep in honor of the
first Challenger expedition.
RV Flip
1. Describe LORAN-C and GPS.
2. Which navigational system would you
rather have?
3. Tell me why your prefer one system to
another.
Glomar Explorer
XII. Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
A) How the oceans were studied was changed forever by
the submersibles and self-contained diving.
1) Instead of grabbing samples blindly, a scientist
could pick specific ones.
2) Scientists could take delicate samples without
damaging them and living organisms
without
killing them.
3) Scientists can directly observe the geology,
life, and other phenomena without taking
any samples.
B) Submersibles
1) Three types of submersibles used for
underwater research:
a) Bathysphere - operated only vertically.
( Barton & BeBe )
b) Bathyscaphe - operated much like a blimp air
ship by releasing ballast and had a small
electric motor to give it limited horizontal
mobility.
c) Deep-diving submersibles - state of the art
today,
far less fragile than bathyscaphes,
easier to launch and
use in rough seas. This makes them suitable for more
varied types of
research. Some even have robotic arms
XIII. Self-Contained Diving
A) In 1840, Augustus Siebe introduced the first
practical dive equipment; hard-hat diving that
supplied air from the surface through a hose.
NOAA, US Monitor
427 ft in Lk Michigan
B) Used mainly for underwater construction,
salvage, and ship maintenance. Limited
because it is heavy and requires a
support team and vessel.
C) In 1878, Englishman Henry Fleuss introduced the
first workable self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus, called scuba today.
D) In 1943, Jacques Cousteau introduced the first
practical scuba.
ADVANTAGES vs. DISADVANTAGES Scuba & Submersibles
XIV. ROVs, AUVs, Electronic Navigation,
Satellites
A) Technology such as electronics and space
travel have provided four important
contributions to oceanography:
and
1. Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs)
became common in the
late 1970s.
a) A ROV is a small, unmanned submarine
with propellers, video camera, and an
umbilical to the surface.
b) ROVs are an economical way to match
the
capability of a submersible and the dexterity
of a scuba diver.
2. AUVs)
a) AUVs Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
(are untethered robotic devices propelled
through the water by
self-contained power systems.
b) Piloted by an onboard computer, AUVs
launched from the surface and are
maneuvered in three dimensions.
c) AUVs sample the ocean along precise
preprogrammed underwater paths.
are
3. The first electronic navigation came into use in
the late 1960s.
a) LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation), later called
Loran-C, used land based
radio transmitters along the coasts.
However, accuracy varied with distance
from the transmitters. The farther from a
transmitter the less accurate
is the position.
4. Satellites – sea surface observations.
a) Satellites orbit the Earth and assist
oceanographers with global
observations of the oceans.
b) Satellites assist oceanographers in
understanding the influence and
effect of the oceans on the global
climate systems.
c) Information gathered from satellites
helps to validate computer models
that numerically simulate climatic
events.
1) Three types of sea surface
observations made by satellites
o benefit oceanographers:
a) Provide long-time continuous
measurements of variables
such as sea-surface height,
shape, temperature, and color
over the entire planet.
b) Can detect algae blooms and
river plumbs, monitor
pollution, and assist
oceanographers in
understanding the influence
and effect of the oceans on
the global climate system.
c) Scientists can look at large
areas of ocean in a very short
time.
5. In the 1990s, GPS (Global Positioning System)
replaced the Loran.
a) GPS is based on signals from orbiting
satellites and works everywhere
on Earth, all the time, in all weather
and is more accurate – to within
1-2 meters (3-6 feet).
6) How GPS works.
( GPS uses triangulation to accurately determine a position on Earth.
Satellite 1 transmits its location and time.
This process is repeated for 2 and 3.
Where the three signals meet at the GPS is its location expressed in specific
coordinates.
Satellite 4’s signal is required to obtain the elevation of the GPS unit.
In the 1990s, GPS replaced Loran.
GPS is based on signals from orbiting satellites and works everywhere on Earth,
the time, in all weather and is accurate – to within 1-2 meters (3-6 feet). )
all
7) Electronic navigation has been very important for
oceanographers:
a) Scientists know where they are when they take
samples or conduct research.
b) They can provide this information to
other scientists who need to conduct
research in the same location.
c) Makes navigation significantly more
accurate and easy.