LITHOSPHERE
MINERALS
ROCKS
SOIL
PERMAFROST
ENERGY RESOURCES
POLLUTION & DEGRADATION
HYDROSPHERE
INLAND WATERS
OCEANS
CRYSOPHERE
ENERGY RESOURCES
POLLUTION & DEGRADATION

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A hard shell of the Earth, consisting of the crust and the topmost part of the Upper
Mantle.
Contains minerals and rocks that are essential to the development of human civilization. It is the source of building materials, metals, and precious stones.
 On average, only 100 km thick (Earth’s radius
= 6300 km)

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 Solid inorganic substances with clearly defined composition and properties
4000 minerals are known to exist on Earth
Classification:
Geologists classify minerals according to 4 distinct properties –
1) colour ( idiochromatic & allochromatic )
2) transparency ( transparent, translucent, & opaque )
3) hardness ( 1 to 10 )
4) streak ( powder it leaves behind when rubbed )

 Geologists who wish to mine for minerals must:
1) Locate
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2) Extract (mine the ore)
3) Separate
Quebec mines:
Gold, Copper, Zinc, Nickel, & Iron

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Rocks are heterogeneous solids composed of many minerals.
Rocks don’t have clearly defined Physical or
Chemical properties.
TYPES OF ROCKS:
Igneous – formed when magma cools and solidifies
Sedimentary – formed by the accumulation and compaction of debris
Metamorphic – former igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been transformed by heat or pressure

 USES OF ROCKS:
ROCK
GRANITE
DIORITE
PUMICE
TYPE
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS
EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS
BASALT
SANDSTONE
LIMESTONE
GNEISS
MARBLE
EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS
SEDIMENTARY
SEDIMENTARY
METAMORPHIC
METAMORPHIC
USES
Ornamental stone
Ornamental stone
Building materials, cosmetic industry
Insulation, floor tiles, road construction
Building materials
Cement, building materials
Building materials
Interior design, decorative objects

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Soil comes from PARENT ROCK
Over time, frost, wind, and rain wear down the rock on the surface of the Lithosphere.
This disintegration leads to the formation of lithosol (a soil consisting mainly of large rock fragments). This mixes with organic matter from decomposing plant and animal residue.
The mixture sets off a series of complex physical and chemical reactions that eventually produces SOIL.

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Soil Horizons are differentiated layers running roughly parallel to the surface of the ground
SOIL HORIZONS:
1) Organic Matter
2) Topsoil
3) Subsoil
4) Fragmented Parent Rock
5) Unaltered Parent Rock (page 192)

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Organic matter – layer containing mostly
HUMUS (decomposing plant and animal residue)
Topsoil – a mixture of HUMUS and WATER-
SOLUABLE MIINERALS (supports plant life)
Subsoil – composed of small particles (deep roots draw nutrients)
Fragmented PARENT ROCK – disintegration of the underlying parent rock
Unaltered PARENT ROCK – this layer is the starting point for soil formation

 Three conditions must be met for soil to be fertile enough to support plant life:
1) sufficient amount of minerals (water – soluble nutrients
2) adequate moisture
3) proper soil pH (balanced)

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Permafrost is ground whose temperature has been 0°C or lower for atleast two years.
Found in polar regions and high altitudes
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Active Layer – can thaw and grow plant life with a brief growing season (until refreezing)
Makes agriculture impossible and construction difficult
 A rise of just a few degrees can soften the ground

 Energy resources:
Fossil Fuels – Oil, Natural Gas, Coal
- forms liquids and gases from marine organisms that died and were buried in sand and silt
- forms solids from terrestrial plants and trees that once grew in swamps
 1 - Fossil Fuels result from the transformation of organic residue

 2 - Uranium – radioactive element that occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust
 3 - Nuclear Energy – the energy stored in the bonds between he particles in the nucleus of an atom.
 4 - Geothermics – the energy that comes from the internal heat of the Earth

 The energy of tomorrow?
Must be RENEWABLE
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Must be AFFORDABLE
Must be CLEAN
Pollutants –
Soil Depletion
Contamination

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 The Hydrosphere is the Earth’s outer layer of water, uniting water in all three states:
- liquid
- solid
- gas
97% salt water (Oceans & Seas)
3% fresh water (21% groundwater, rivers, lakes, etc – 79% glaciers)

 Inland Water – all the freshwater bodies found on the continent, uniting rivers, lakes, and groundwater.
 Watershed – an area of land whose lakes and rivers all empty into the same larger body of water. (Quebec has 3 – Hudson Bay, Ungava
Bay, St. Lawrence River)

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What effects water flow within Watersheds?
1) Topography – shape, slope, and terrain of the area
2) Geology – type, depth, and structure of the rock
3) Climate – rain or snowfall, winds, and temperature
4) Vegetation – density and diversity
5) Development – Agricultural, Industrial, or Urban

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Oceans – Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and
Southern
Ocean waters are moved by currents that carry them all over the world. Two important parameters in the study of oceans:
* temperature and salinity
Closer to coast line lie smaller and shallower seas
Temperatures range from 4°C at the bottom of the ocean to 26°C at the surface near the equator

 FACTORS affecting temperature:
Depth – influences temperature because sunlight rarely reaches 200m in depth causing a rapid drop in temperature.
The Seasons – Water loses heat more slowly than land so the change is less pronounced
Latitude – Surface temperatures reach
25°C or 26°C at the equator and between 12°C and 17°C in temperate zones

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SALINITY – a measure of the amount of salt dissolved in a liquid (Oceans 3.4% -3.7%)
Salt does not EVAPORATE and therefore become concentrated in the oceans
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Near the poles, melting ice ( adds Fresh
Water) dilutes the salt content 3%
Near heat and drought areas (Water evaporates more quickly) increase Salt percentage 4%

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CIRCULATION – the water in the ocean is in constant motion. Waves and tides on the surface and ocean currents in its depths.
OCEAN CURRENT – the movement of seawater in a certain direction
 OCEAN CIRCULATION – the combined effect of all currents that move across the oceans

 SURFACE CURRENTS
Driven by the wind mostly to a depth of 400m
 SUBSURFACE CURRENTS
Driven by deep currents to a depth of 800m and density of water (colder = less buoyant = sink)
 THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION
Surface and subsurface (Hot & Cold) form a huge
“Conveyer Belt” to move water all around the world and to transfer heat and regulate all of
Earth’s climate

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CRYOSPHERE – consists of all the frozen water on Earth’s surface
PACK ICE – composed of the ice floating on the oceans near the North & south pole
Approx. 12 million square kilometers 2008
14 million square kilometers 2005
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16 million square kilometers 1979
GLACIERS – a mass of ice on land, formed by compressed snow

 HYDRAULIC ENERGY – the energy that can be derived from moving water
WATERFALLS AND RIVERS
HYDROELECTRIC DAMS – converts a river’s hydraulic energy into electrical power
WAVES AND OCEAN CURRENTS
TURBINES – Buoys in the ocean that converts an ocean’s current or waves into electrical power

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HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Domestic, Industrial, Agricultural, or Navigational
 CHEMICALS
Factory discharge, Atmospheric Contaminants
 LIVING ORGANISMS
Fertilizers, Pesticides, Phosphorus, Mercury
 THREATS AT SEA
Accidental spills, Dumping, HydroCarbons