APHY 102 Review Guide for Comprehensive Final
Chapter 15- Cardiovascular System
I.
Heart Anatomy
a. Pericardium – covers the heart
b. Chambers
i. Right Atrium – receives blood from body
ii. Left Atrium – receives blood from lungs
iii. Right Ventricle – pumps blood towards lungs
iv. Left Ventricl – pumps blood towards body
c. Great Vessels
i. Superior & Inferior Vena Cava – returns blood to right atrium
ii. Pulmonary Trunk (Arteries) – Conveys blood from right ventricle to lungs
iii. Pulmonary Veins – returns oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium
iv. Aorta – Conveys blood from left ventricle to body
d. Valves
i. Atrioventricular Valves – between atria and ventricles
1. Tricuspid – guards right AV orifice
2. Bicuspid –guards left AV orifice
ii. Semilunar Valves – guard pulmonary arteries and aorta
1. Pulmonary valve – guards pulmonary trunk
2. Aortic valve – guards aorta
e. Pathway of blood through heart
Vena Cava → right atrium→ tricuspid valve → right ventricle → pulmonary valve →
pulmonary trunk → Pulmonary Arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary Veins → Left Atrium →
Bicuspid Valve → Left Ventricle → Aorta
II.
Blood Vessels
a. Walls of blood vessels
i. Tunica Externa (outer) – connective tissue
ii. Tunica Media (middle) – smooth muscle fibers
1. Vasoconstriction – muscles contract & decrease diameter of vessel
2. Vasodilation – muscles relax & diameter of vessel increases
iii. Tunica Interna (inner) – endothelium (smooth squamous cells)
b. Types of vessels
i. Artery – conveys blood away from heart
ii. Vein – conveys blood towards the heart
iii. Capillaries – smallest blood vessels, where gas, nutrients, and wastes are
exchanged
c. Factors of Venous Return
1. Low blood pressure in veins: Respiratory movements, skeletal muscle
contractions, valves, and vasoconstriction return blood towards heart
d. Systemic Circulation
i. Aorta
1. Ascending Aorta
2. Aortic Arch
3. Descending Aorta
a. Thoracic Aorta
b. Abdominal Aorta
ii. Arteries to brain
1. Internal Carotid Arteries – 75% of blood to brain
2. Vertebral Arteries – 25% of blood to brain
3. Circle of Willis – anastomes of internal carotid and vertebral arteries
iii. Abdominal Branches
1. Celiac trunk – supplies stomach, pancreas, spleen, liver
2. Renal Arteries – supplies kidneys
3. Hepatic Portal Vein- nutrient rich blood from abdominal viscera to liver
Chapter 14 – Blood
I.
Components
a. Plasma
i. Water
ii. Electrolytes and nutrients
iii. Plasma Proteins
b. Formed Elements
i. Red Blood Cells – erythrocytes
ii. White Blood Cells – leukocytes
iii. Platelets –thrombocytes
c. Red Blood Cells
i. Characteristics
1. Anucleated
2. 1/3 volume is hemoglobin (transports Oxygen)
3. Biconcave
ii. Formation
1. Formed in red bone marrow
2. Erythropoietin
a. hormone stimulates RBC formation
b. Secreted by kidneys
iii. Destruction
1. RBCs destroyed by liver or spleen
d. White Blood Cells
i. Neutrophil – phagocytize bacteria
ii. Eosinophil – attacks parasitic worms
iii. Basophils – secrete heparin and histamine
iv. Monocytes – macrophages
v. Lymphocytes – immunity
e. Platelets
i. Cell fragments
ii. Formation of blood clots
f.
Hemostasis
i. Stoppage of bleeding
ii. 3 major events
1. Vasospasm
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Blood coagulation – formation of blood clot
Chapter 13 – Endocrine System
I.
Hormone
a. Secreted into blood stream
b. Act on distant target cells
II.
Major Endocrine Glands
a. Thyroid Gland
i. T3 & T4
1. Increases rate of metabolism
2. Determines calories for basal metabolic rate
ii. Calcitonin
1. Secreted by C-cells
2. Lowers blood calcium through bone deposition
a. Stimulates osteoblasts and inhibits osteoclasts
b. Parathyroid Glands
i. Parathyroid Hormone- Increases blood calcium levels through bone
resorption
c. Adrenal Medulla
i. Epinephrine & Norepinephrine - Fight or Flight Response
d. Adrenal Cortex
i. Aldosterone – sodium reabsorption
ii. Cortisol – Increases glucose levels in blood
e. Pancreas
i. Glucagon – raises blood glucose levels (between meals)
ii. Insulin – lowers blood glucose levels (following a meal)
f.
Posterior Pituitary Gland
i. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) – water reabsorption
ii. Oxytocin – uterine contractions
g. Anterior Pituitary Gland
i. Growth Hormone – Cell growth and division
ii. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone – stimulates thyroid gland
Chapter 16 – Lymphatic System & Immunity
I.
Lymphatic Vessels
a. Returns excess fluid to blood circulation
b. Thoracic Duct – drains lymph from lower body and left upper body
c. Right Collecting Duct – drains lymph from right upper body
II.
Lymph Nodes
a. House Lymphocytes ( B-cells and T-cells)
b. Filters lymph
c. Located in groups (cervical, axillary, inguinal, ect.)
III.
Spleen
a. Located in upper left abdominal quadrant
b. Filters blood, removes old RBCs, houses lymphocytes
IV.
Thymus
a. Shrinks (atrophies) with age
b. Houses T-cells
c. Secretes Thymosin – promotes T-cell maturation
Immunity
a. Innate
i. Mechanical Barrier – skin, mucous, tears
ii. Chemical Barrier – tears, mucus, HCl in stomach
iii. Cellular defense – phagocytosis
V.
b. Adaptive
i. Recognizes, responds, and remembers a threat
ii. Antigen/Antibody interaction
iii. Antibody-mediated immunity – B cells secrete antibodies
iv. Cell-mediated immunity – T cells attack directly
Chapter 17 – Digestive System
I.
Alimentary Canal
a. Extends from mouth to anus
b. Accessory glands secrete juices into canal - Liver, Gall Bladder, Pancreas
c. Movements – segmentation and peristalsis
II.
Mouth
a.
b.
c.
d.
Mastication – chewing food
Bolus – food + saliva
Deglutition – swallowing
Teeth
i. Types
1. 8 incisors – cutting
2. 4 canines – tearing
3. 8 bicuspids – grinding
4. 12 molars – grinding
ii. Structure
1. Enamel – hardest substance in body
2. Dentin – living tissue
3. Pulp –connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves
III.
IV.
V.
Stomach
a. Mixes food with gastric juices = chyme
b. Very little absorption
c. Gastric Glands
i. Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen
ii. Parietal cells secrete Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
1. HCL + Pepsinogen → Pepsin (digests proteins)
iii. Mucous cells secrete mucus
Pancreas
a. Acinar Cells secrete pancreatic juice
b. Enzymes:
i. Amylase – digests carbohydrates
ii. Lipase – digests lipids
iii. Nucleases – digests nucleic acids
iv. Trypsin – digests proteins
Liver
a. Location: upper right abdominal quadrant
b. Lobule – functional unit of liver
i. Hepatocytes – liver cells
VI.
VII.
c. Functions of liver
i. Forms bile – emulsifies fats
ii. Synthesizes proteins
iii. Destroys old RBC
iv. Synthesizes glycogen from glucose
v. Removes bacteria from blood
Small Intestine
a. Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
b. Absorbs nutrients and water
Large Intestine
a. Absorbs water and forms feces
b. Houses intestinal flora = bacteria
Chapter 19 – respiratory system
I.
Events
a. Ventilation – movement of air into and out of lungs
b. Cell Respiration – cells use Oxygen for ATP synthesis, CO2 is produced as waste
II.
Upper Respiratory Tract
a. Nasal Cavity
i. Warms the air
ii. Moistens the air
iii. Filters the air
iv. Smell
b. Larynx
i. Houses vocal cords
ii. Epiglottis – covers glottis when swallowing
c. Trachea
i. 20 “C” shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
ii. Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium with cilia and goblet cells
1. Goblet cells – secrete mucus to trap debris
2. Cilia – remove debris from airway
d. Lungs
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Alveoli – simple squamous epithelium for gas exchange
Surfactant – reduces surface tension between alveoli
Right lung = 3 lobes, left lung = 2 lobes
Pleura = membrane surrounding lungs
e. Control of breathing
i. Medulla Oblongata –primary respiratory centers for control of breathing
Chapter 20 – Urinary System
I.
Kidneys
a. Location
i. Behind peritoneal membrane – retroperitoneal
b. Functions
i. Produces urine
ii. Regulates blood pressure
iii. Regulates pH
c. Blood Supply
i. Renal Arteries
d. Structure
i. Hilum = entrance
ii. Renal Capsule = fibrous C.T.
iii. Renal Medulla
iv. Renal Cortex
II.
Nephron
a. Functional unit of kidneys
b. Renal Corpuscle – site of filtration
i. Glomerulus = ball of capillaries
ii. Glomerular Capsule
c. Renal Tubules – site of reabsorption and secretion
i. Proximal Convoluted Tubule
ii. Descending Nephron Loop
iii. Ascending Nephron Loop
iv. Distal Convoluted Tubule
d. Glomerular Filtrate
i. 180Liters formed per day
ii. 99% is reabsorbed, 1% is excreted as urine
iii. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis
III.
Ureters
a. Convey urine from kidneys towards urinary bladder
b. Passes urine by Peristalsis
IV.
Urinary Bladder
a. Detrusor muscle – bulk of urinary bladder
b. Transitional epithelium – lines urinary bladder, allows for distension
V.
Urethra
a. Conveys urine to environment
b. Female = 1.5 inches
c. Male = 7.5 inches
i. Prostatic Urethra – joins prostate gland
ii. Membranous Urethra- External Urethral Sphincter
iii. Penile Urethra- through penis
Chapter 21 – Water and Electrolyte Balance
I.
Distribution of water
a. Intracellular Fluids
i. Enclosed by membrane
ii. Contains 60% of total water volume
b. Extracellular Fluids
i. Contains 40% of total water volume
ii. Plasma, interstitial fluids, lymph, synovial fluid, serous fluid, CSF
II.
Distribution of Electrolytes
a. Sodium – primary cation in extracellular fluid
b. Potassium – primary cation in intracellular fluid
III.
Movement of fluids
a. Hydrostatic Pressure
b. Osmosis
i. Hypotonic ECF with over hydration – water enters cell and cell swells
ii. Hypertonic ECF with dehydration – water leaves cell and cell shrinks
IV.
Regulation of water intake and output
a. Thirst Mechanism – within hypothalamus
i. Stimulates thirst sensation
ii. Sensation is inhibited when the stomach is distended from drinking fluids
V.
b. Osmoreceptor-ADH Mechanism- within hypothalamus
i. With water loss, osmoreceptors in hypothalamus stimulate ADH secretion from
Posterior Pituitary Gland
ii. ADH increases water reabsorption in kidneys
iii. Urine output decreases
Buffers
a. Buffer – resists changes in pH
b. Blood pH 7.35-7.45
c. Buffers in Blood
i. Bicarbonate
ii. Phosphate
iii. Proteins – most important protein buffer is hemoglobin
VI.
Respiratory excretion of CO2
a. CO2 lowers the blood pH (increases acidity)
b. Accumulation of CO2 increases rate of respiration
c. Expiration of CO2 from lungs removes excess CO2
VII.
Renal Secretion of H+
a. Kidneys regulate blood pH by secreting H+ into the renal tubules