Chapter 12
Aging and Inequality Based on Age
Chapter Outline
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The Social Significance of Age
Age in Global Perspective
Age and the Life Course in Contemporary
Society
Inequalities Related to Aging
Chapter Outline
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Living Arrangements for Older Adults
Sociological Perspectives on Aging
Death and Dying
Aging in the Future
Age
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Chronological age is a person’s age
based on date of birth.
Most of us estimate a person’s age on the
basis of functional age - observable
individual attributes such as physical
appearance, mobility, strength,
coordination, and mental capacity that are
used to assign people to age categories.
How Much Do You Know About Aging
and Age-Based Discrimination?
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True or False?
 Most older persons have serious
physical or mental disabilities.
How Much Do You Know About Aging
and Age-Based Discrimination?
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False
 Only about 14% of older people have
severe functional limitations; at age 85
or over, 31% have severe disabilities.
How Much Do You Know About Aging
and Age-Based Discrimination?
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True or False?
 Scientific studies have documented the
fact that women age faster than men
do.
How Much Do You Know About Aging
and Age-Based Discrimination
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False.
 No studies have documented that women
actually age faster than men. However, some
scholars have noted a “double standard” of
aging that places older women at a
disadvantage with respect to older men
because women’s worth in the United States
is often defined in terms of physical
appearance.
Question

_______________ age refers to a
person’s age based on date of birth.
a. chronological
b. functional
c. expectant
d. average
Answer: a
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Chronological age refers to a person’s
age based on date of birth.
Graying of America
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The aging of the U.S. population resulted from
increased life expectancy and a decrease in
birth rates.
 In 1900, about 4% of the U.S. population
was over age 65.
 By 1980, that number rose to about 11%.
 In 2002, it rose to 14%.
 By 2050, about 20% of the population will be
age 65 or older.
Life Expectancy
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The average number of years that a
group of people born in the same year
could expect to live.
A cohort is a group of people born within
a specified period of time.
Gerontology
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The study of aging and older people.
Social gerontology, is the study of the
social (nonphysical) aspects of aging,
including such topics as the societal
consequences of an aging population and
the personal experience of aging.
Question

Most older people in our society are
independent and mobile.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree somewhat
c. Unsure
d. Disagree somewhat
e. Strongly disagree
U.S. Population Growth,
1980–2000
Selected Life Expectancies by
Race, Ethnicity, and Sex, 2000
% Distribution of U.S. Population
by Age, 2000–2050 (projected)
U.S. Age Pyramid by Age
and Sex, 2000 (in millions)
Age in Historical and
Contemporary Perspectives
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People are assigned to different roles and
positions based on the age structure and
role structure in a particular society.
Age structure is the number of people of
each age level within the society.
Role structure is the number and type of
positions available to them.
Views of Aging in Preindustrial
and Industrialized Societies
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In preindustrial societies, people of all
ages are expected to share the work, and
the contributions of older people are
valued.
In industrialized societies, older people
are often expected to retire so that
younger people may take their place.
Age Stratification
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Inequalities, differences, segregation, or
conflict between age groups.
Question

_________ structure is the number of
people of each age level within society.
a. role
b. societal
c. age
d. hierarchical
Answer: c
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Age structure is the number of people of
each age level within society.
Infancy and Childhood (Birth
to 12 )
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Children are among the most powerless
and vulnerable people in society.
 Every day in the United States 1 out of
every 5 infants are born into poverty.
 Over 3,000 children die from gunshot
wounds every year.
 Every 11 seconds a child is reported
abused or neglected.
Adolescence (13 to 18)
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Many adolescents face conflicting demands to
attend school and to make money.
Juvenile laws define truancy or running away as
forms of delinquency - these would not be
offenses if committed by an adult.
Despite laws to control working conditions,
many adolescents are employed in settings with
hazardous working conditions, low wages, no
benefits, and long work hours.
Young Adulthood (19-39)
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During this time people are expected to
get married, have children, and get a job.
Individuals who do not get married by age
39 are often quizzed about their intentions
and their sexual orientation.
Those who are unable to find steady
employment tend to become suspect
because they have not “settled down”.
Middle Adulthood (40-65)
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As people progress through middle
adulthood, they experience senescence
(primary aging) in the form of molecular
and cellular changes in the body.
 Wrinkles and gray hair are visible signs
of senescence.
Middle Adulthood (40-65)
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Women undergo menopause - the
cessation of the menstrual cycle caused
by a gradual decline in the body’s
production of the “female” hormones
estrogen and progesterone.
Men undergo a climacteric, in which the
production of the “male” hormone
testosterone decreases.
Middle Adulthood (40-65)
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Middle adulthood for some people represents
the time during which
 They have the highest levels of income and
prestige.
 They leave the problems of child rearing
behind them and are content with their
spouse of many years.
 They may have grandchildren, who give
them another tie to the future.
Late Adulthood (65 and
older)
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Some gerontologists subdivide late
adulthood into three categories:
1. the “young-old” (ages 65 to 74)
2. the “old-old” (ages 75 to 85)
3. the “oldest old” (over age 85)
% of Resident Population
Age 65 and Older by State
Ageism
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Ageism is prejudice and discrimination
against people on the basis of age,
particularly against older persons.
Ageism against older persons is rooted in
the assumption that people become
unattractive, unintelligent, asexual,
unemployable, and mentally incompetent
as they grow older.
Question

About how often did you have sex during
the last 12 months?
GSS National Data
Age
<30
30-49
50 and up
Not at all
11%
9.8%
43.8%
Month/less
29.5%
35.9%
33.4%
Weekly
/more
59.6%
54.3%
22.7%
Percentage of Persons Age
65+ Below Poverty Level
Question
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I don't value older people in our society
as much as younger people.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree somewhat
c. Unsure
d. Disagree somewhat
e. Strongly disagree
Elder Abuse
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As many as 1.6 million older people in the
U.S. are victims of abuse each year.
Physical abuse includes malnutrition,
injuries and dislocations.
Psychological abuse includes verbal
assaults, threats, fear, and social
isolation.
Elder Abuse
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Financial exploitation involves theft or misuse of
the older person’s money or property.
Medical abuse is when medicine is withheld or
improperly administered.
Neglect is not providing sufficient care.
Question
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Stereotypes regarding older persons
reinforce:
a. age stratification
b. ageism
c. age discrimination
d. gerontocism
Answer: b
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Stereotypes regarding older persons
reinforce ageism.
Functionalist Perspectives on
Aging
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Functionalist perspectives focus on how older
persons adjust to their changing roles in
society.
According to sociologist Talcott Parsons, the
roles of older persons need to be redefined by
society.
He suggested that devaluing the contributions
of older persons is dysfunctional for society;
older persons often have knowledge and
wisdom to share with younger people.
Disengagement Theory
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According to disengagement theory, older
persons make a normal and healthy
adjustment to aging when they detach
themselves from their social roles and
prepare for their eventual death.
Disengagement aids a gradual and
orderly transfer of statuses and roles from
one generation to the next; an abrupt
change would result in chaos.
Symbolic Interactionist
Perspectives on Aging
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Symbolic interactionist perspectives
examine the connection between
personal satisfaction in a person’s later
years and a high level of activity.
Activity theory states that people tend to
shift gears in late middle age and find
substitutes for previous statuses, roles,
and activities.
Symbolic Interactionist
Perspectives on Aging
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The concept of continuity - people constantly
attempt to maintain their self-esteem and
lifelong principles and practices and they simply
adjust to feedback from and needs of others as
they grow older.
Role theory asks: What roles are available for
older people?
 Some theorists note that industrialized,
urbanized societies do not have roles for
older people.
Conflict Perspectives on Aging
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Conflict analysis draws attention to the diversity
in the older population.
Differences in social class, gender, and
race/ethnicity divide older people just as they
do everyone else.
The conflict perspective adds to our
understanding of aging by focusing on how
capitalism devalues older people, especially
women.
Question

Medical and health insurance premiums
should not be based on age of the
recipient.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree somewhat
c. Unsure
d. Disagree somewhat
e. Strongly disagree
Death and Dying
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There are three frameworks for explaining
how people cope with the process of
dying:
 the stage-based approach
 the dying trajectory
 the task-based approach
 . The stage-based approach was
popularized
Stage-based Framework:
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross
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Five stages in the dying process:
1. Denial and isolation (“Not me!”)
2. Anger and resentment (“Why me?”)
3. Bargaining and an attempt to postpone
(“Yes me, but . . . “—negotiating for
divine intervention)
4. Depression and sense of loss
5. Acceptance.
Dying Trajectory Framework
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Focuses on the perceived course of dying and
the expected time of death.
The process of dying involves three phases:
1. The acute phase, characterized by the
expression of maximum anxiety or fear.
2. The chronic phase, characterized by a
decline in anxiety as the person
confronts reality.
3. The terminal phase, characterized by the
dying person’s withdrawal from others.
Task-based Framework
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The dying person should perform tasks that
make dying easier on their loved ones and
themselves.
 Physical tasks to satisfy bodily needs.
 Psychological tasks to increase security,
autonomy, and richness of experience.
 Social tasks sustain interpersonal
attachments.
 Spiritual tasks help people develop, or
reaffirm spiritual energy and foster hope.
Quick Quiz
1. Observable individual attributes such as
physical appearance, mobility, strength,
coordination, and mental capacity that
are used to assign people to age
categories are called:
a. chronological age
b. functional age
c. developmental age
d. gerontological age
Answer: b
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Observable individual attributes such as
physical appearance, mobility, strength,
coordination, and mental capacity that are
used to assign people to age categories
are called: functional age.
2. The graying of America refers to:
a. Americans living longer.
b. Americans taking care of older
adults.
c. the vanishing of clear cut borders
between what is old and what is
not.
d. longer life expectancy combined
with an increase in birth rates.
Answer: a
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The graying of America refers to
Americans living longer.
3. The study of aging and older people is
called:
a. Sociology
b. Geriatrics
c. Gerontology
d. Epidemiology
Answer: c
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The study of aging and older people is
called gerontology.
4. A cohort is:
a. a group of people born within a
specified period of time.
b. a group of people who share a
similar descent.
c. a group of people who share the
same gender.
d. a group of people who share the
same racial background.
Answer: a
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A cohort is a group of people born
within a specified period of time.
5. Which of these is not one of the three
types of elder abuse?
a. physical abuse
b. medical abuse
c. housing abuse
d. psychological abuse
Answer: c
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Housing abuse is not one of the three
types of elder abuse.
6. By the year 2050, there will be an
estimated __________________ people
in the United States age 65 and older.
a. 50 million
b. 80 million
c. 100 million
d. 120 million
Answer: b
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By the year 2050, there will be an
estimated 80 million people in the
United States age 65 and older.