Argumentation - 1

We often encounter situations in which
someone is trying to persuade us of a
point of view by presenting reasons for it.

This is called “arguing a case” or
“presenting an argument”.
Argumentation - 2

Sometimes it is easy to to see what the
issues and conclusions are, and the
reasons presented, but sometimes not.

Before we evaluate and argue a point of
view we must identify its issues,
conclusions, and reasons.

And then clearly present our own.
Asking the right questions - 1
1.
What are the issues and the conclusions?
2.
What are the reasons?
3.
Which words or phrases are ambiguous?
4.
What are the value conflicts and
assumptions?
5.
What are the descriptive assumptions?
6.
Are there any fallacies in the reasoning?
Asking the right questions - 2
7.
How good is the evidence?
8.
Are there rival causes?
9.
Are the statistics deceptive?
10.
What significant information is omitted?
11.
What reasonable conclusions are
possible?
12.
Are the best practice precepts followed?
What are the issues and conclusions? - 1

Before we can evaluate an author’s argument,
we must clearly identify the issues and
conclusions.

How can we evaluate an argument if we don’t
know exactly what the author is trying to
persuade us to believe?

Finding an author’s main points is the first step
in deciding whether we will accept or reject it.
What are the issues and conclusions? - 2

An issue is a question or controversy responsible
for the conversation or discussion. It is the
stimulus for what is being said.

Descriptive issues are those that raise questions
about the accuracy of descriptions of the past,
present, or future.

Prescriptive issues are those that raise questions
about what we should do, or what is right or
wrong, good or bad.

A conclusion is the message that the speaker or
writer wishes you to accept.
What are the issues and conclusions? - 3

Clues for finding them:
– Ask what the issue is: look at title and opening
paragraphs; skim through.
– Look for indicator words: the truth is, hence, ...
– Look in likely locations: beginning, end, summary.
– Remember what a conclusion is not: examples, ...
– Check the author’s context: background,
organizations, bias, ...
– Ask the question “and therefore?”
What are the reasons? - 1

Once we have identified an issue and conclusion,
we need to understand why an author has come
to that conclusion. Reasons are the why.

If the author provides good reasons, we might be
persuaded to accept the conclusion. First, we are
simply concerned with identifying the reasons.
Next, we decide whether to accept or reject it.
What are the reasons? - 2

Inferential reasons are explanations offered as a
basis for why we should believe a particular
conclusion.
 They rely on facts, evidence, assumptions, and
inferences.
 They have an intent.
 Their quality varies.
 Argument = Conclusion + Reasons

We distinguish them from causal reasons.
What are the reasons? - 3

Clues for finding them:
1. Circle indicator words.
2. Underline reasons and conclusions in
different colour, and label them.
3. After reading long passages, make a list of
the reasons and conclusions in them.
4. Use a diagram structure with arrows and
labels to designate relationships between
reasons and conclusions.
Value conflicts and assumptions - 1

While an author usually offers explicit
reasons why he comes to a certain
conclusion, he also makes (implicit)
assumptions leading to it, on the basis of
his values.

By identifying value conflicts, we determine
whether the author’s value preferences
match our own, and can then dispute them.
Value conflicts and assumptions - 2

Value assumptions usually are:
– Hidden or unstated (in most cases).
– Taken for granted.
– Influential in determining the conclusion.
– Potentially deceptive.
Value conflicts and assumptions - 3

Clues for finding them:
– Investigate the author’s background.
– Ask “Why do the consequences of the author’s
position seem so important to him?”
– Search for similar social controversies, in order
to find analogue value assumptions.
– Use reverse role-playing, by taking his position.
– Look for usual value conflicts.
What are the descriptive
assumptions? - 1

When we identify descriptive assumptions,
we find the link between a reason and the
author’s conclusion, and it may be flawed.

We want to accept a conclusion only if
there are good reasons that lead to the
conclusion on the basis of the descriptive
assumptions.
What are the descriptive
assumptions? - 2

Clues to finding them:
– Keep thinking about the gap between
conclusion and reasons.
– Look for ideas that support reasons.
– Identify with the opposition.
– Recognize the potential existence of other
means for attaining the advantages referred
in the reasons.
– Learn more about the issues.
The Socratic method - 1

What do you mean by _____________ ?

How did you come to that conclusion?

Why do you believe that you are right?

What is the source of your information?

What assumption has led you to that
conclusion?
(see Wikipedia)
The Socratic method - 2

What happens if you are wrong?

Can you give me two sources who disagree
with you and explain why?

Why is this significant? Does it matter?

How do I know you are telling me the truth?

What is an alternate explanation for this
phenomenon?
Best Practice Precepts [... next]

Arguments

Possibility of the Impossible

Belief, Truth, and Reality

Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence

Scientific Thinking

Bias