AP Biology
Exam
Review
60% multiple choice
40% free response
Organizing life
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Atoms
Molecules
Organelles
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Systems
Organism species
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Experimental design free
response
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Problem
Hypothesis
Materials/procedure
Control setup/baseline
Independent and
dependent variables
Constants & variables
Qualitative &
quantitative data
Data interpretation
Conclusion
Hypothesis
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Predictive
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May propose a method for
testing the problem.
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Give a justification for the
method of testing.
Properties of life
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Metabolism: chemical pathways
that are regulated
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Cellular organization
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Homeostasis: maintaining stable
internal environment through
controlled chemical reactions or
metabolism for life functions (pH,
temperature, etc)
Properties of life
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Reproduction:
capacity to develop
from juvenile to
adult stage with
potential to
replicate own DNA
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Asexual
Sexual
Properties of life
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Response to stimulus:
able to react to external
or internal changes
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Many responses to
stimulus are result of
enzymatic proteins.
Chemical evolution of life
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production of small, reduced, carboncontaining compounds like
formaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide.
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simple compounds reacted in the
ocean to form the mid-sized
molecules called sugars, amino acids,
and nitrogenous bases
Chemical evolution of life
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building block molecules linked together to
form molecules found in cells (proteins and
nucleic acids)
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single molecule acquired the ability to make
a copies of itself
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Chemical evolution began to give way to
biological evolution.
Covalent
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Sharing of
electrons
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Stable
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Forms
hydrocarbons
Polar covalent bonds
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Water
molecule
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Leads to
different water
properties
Ionic bonds
Hydrogen bonds
Weak
individually
 Strength in
multiple Hbonds
 Found between
nucleotides
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Chemical reactions
Properties of water
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Slightly
positive and
negative
“poles” of
water
molecule form
hydrogen
bonds
Frozen water molecules less
dense, ice floats
Water as ideal solvent
Water as ideal solvent
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Water soluble
protein
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Attracts water
molecules
pH: water dissociation
pH scale
Homeostatic
control of pH
(maintaining
optimal pH
levels) is
necessary to
sustain life.
 Ex: pH drop in
blood = too
much CO2
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Organic chemistry
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Alkanes: hydrocarbons with only
single bonds between C and H
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Alkenes: hydrocarbons with double
bonds between C and H
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Alkynes: hydrocarbons with triple
bonds between C and H
Valence numbers
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Indicates the number of bonds that
can be formed.
Carbon structural molecules
Isomers
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Molecules with the
same molecular
formula but
different 3D
configuration
Functional
groups
Alcohol*
Aldehyde
Amine*
Carboxylic acid*
Ester
Ether
Ketone
Methyl
Phosphate*
Polymers
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Most organic
polymers form
through
dehydration
synthesis.
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Most break apart
by hydrolysis.
Monosaccharides
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Single building
block of sugars
(carbohydrate)
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a-glucose, bglucose, fructose
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
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Starch: plant and algae storage,
product of photosynthesis (a-glucose)
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Cellulose: structural polymer, product
of photosynthesis (b-glucose)
Chitin
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carbohydrate with an
additional amine functional
group that makes this
molecule tough and water
resistant
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exoskeletons of many
insects
fungal cell wall
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Lipids
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Ester linkage
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Why is this a
saturated fat?
Lipids
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Energy
storage
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Insoluble
in water
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C and H
Saturated vs. Unsaturated
Lipids: What is this
structure?
Lipids
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What are these
structures?
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What proof is there
that one of these
structures makes
up membranes?
Lipids: What is this
structure?
Proteins: amino acid
monomers
Proteins: amino acid
monomers
Proteins
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Primary
conformation:
peptide bonds
between amino
acids
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Forms peptide
chains
Proteins
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Primary structure or
conformation
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Notice the amino
and the carboxyl
terminus (ends)
Proteins
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Secondary
structure:
hydrogen
bonds
between
peptide chains
Proteins
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Tertiary
structure: Rgroup
interactions,
depends upon
properties of R
group
Proteins: Quaternary
structure
Protein denaturation
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What can denature proteins?
How cells “fix” denatured
proteins
Nucleic acids
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Nucleic acids are built from monomers
of nucleotides.
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Nucleotides are adenine, thymine,
cytosine, guanine, uracil.
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Ex: DNA, RNA, ATP, and GTP
Nucleic acid
DNA
structure
 Notice the
different
types of
bonds
involved in
the making
of DNA
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DNA model
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Each nucleotide is
made from
deoxyribose sugar,
phosphate, and
nitrogen base.
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DNA is double
stranded.
Cells – 10% of test
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
 Membranes
 Subcellular organizations
 Cell cycle and its regulation
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Cell size
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Viruses not cells
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Bacteria,
mitochondria,
chloroplast all about
the same size
(evidence for
endosymbiotic theory)
Cell fractionation
Prokaryotic cell
Surface to
volume ratio
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Governs size
Membrane
Eukaryotic – animal cell
Eukaryotic – plant cell
Freeze fracture
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Showing the “mosaic” of
fluid mosaic model
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Singer and Nicholson
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Danielli proposed
alternative model
(protein-membraneprotein)
Membrane fluidity
Membrane structure
Diffusion: entropy
Osmotic balance
Guard cells,
excretory
system,
transpiration,
translocation
Osmotic balance
Sodium-potassium pump
Transport
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Passive vs.
active transport
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Passive:
osmosis
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Active transport:
establishing
proton gradient
of electron
transport chain
Proton pump: auxin transport,
electron transport chain
Cotransport
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Translocation
(phloem
source to
sink)
Cell cycle
Mitosis lab
500 cells = interphase = 50%
 100 cells = prophase = 10%
 150 cells = metaphase = 15%
 150 cells = anaphase = 15%
 100 cells = telophase = 10%
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Mitosis
Mitosis
Binary fission
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Asexual reproduction
in prokaryotic cells
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Other examples of
asexual reproduction:
budding,
regeneration,
vegetative
propagation
Cell cycle control
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Requires various
checkpoints and
Cdk (cyclindependent
kinase) protein to
detect levels of
cyclin
Density
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Density
dependent
cellular growth
vs. density
independent
cancerous
growth