Chapter 13
Motivation
© 2015 Cengage Learning
MGMT7
What Is Motivation?
• Motivation is the set of forces that initiates,
directs, and makes people persist in their
efforts to accomplish a goal
• Initiation of effort is concerned with the
choices that people make about how much
effort to put forth in their jobs.
• Direction of effort is concerned with the
choices that people make in deciding where to
put forth effort in their jobs.
• Persistence of effort is concerned with the
choices that people make about how long they
will put forth effort.
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The Basics of Motivation
• Effort and performance
• Need satisfaction
• Extrinsic and intrinsic rewards
• How to motivate with the basic model of
motivation
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A Basic Model of Work Motivation and
Performance
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Effort and Performance
Job Performance = Motivation x Ability x Situational Constraints
• Job performance
– how well someone performs the job
– Motivation
• effort put forth on the job
– Ability
• capability to do the job(knowledge, skills, talent0
– Situational Constraints
• external factors affecting performance(tools, policies, resources)
• Since job performance is a multiplicative function of
motivation times ability times situational
constraints, job performance will suffer if any one of
these components is weak.
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Need Satisfaction
•
Needs
– the physical or psychological requirements that must be met to
ensure survival and well-being
•
•
•
•
•
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A person’s unmet need creates an uncomfortable, internal
state of tension that must be resolved.
People are motivated by unmet needs
Managers must learn what those unmet needs are, and
address them.
Once a need is met, it no longer motivates.
Three approaches:
– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
– Alderfer’s ERG Theory
– McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
Realizing your potential
Esteem
Recognition, achievement
Belongingness
Friendship, social interaction
Safety
Physical and economic
Physiological
Food and water
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Aldefer’s ERG Theory
Growth
Esteem, self-actualization
Relatedness
Belongingness
Existence
Safety and physiological
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McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
Power
Need to influence others
Achievement
Need to accomplish goals
Affiliation
Need to be liked
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Needs Classification
Maslow’s
Hierarchy
Higher
-Order
Needs
SelfActualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Lower- Safety
Order Physiological
Needs
Alderfer’s
ERG
McClelland’s
Learned Needs
Growth
Relatedness
Power
Achievement
Affiliation
Existence
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“What Leads to Effort?”
• Higher-order needs will not motivate as
long as lower-order needs remain
unsatisfied.
• It’s difficult to predict which higher-order
needs will motivate employees’ behavior.
• The relative importance of the various
needs may change over time.
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13-1
Predictions of Need Theories
•
Maslow
– needs are arranged in a hierarchy from low to high; people
are motivated by their lowest unsatisfied needs
•
Alderfer
– people can be motivated by more than one need at a time
•
McClelland
– the degree to which particular needs motivate varies from
person to person
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© 2015 Cengage Learning
A Basic Model of Work Motivation and
Performance
© 2015 Cengage Learning
13-1
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards
• Extrinsic rewards
– tangible and visible to others and are given
to employees contingent on the
performance of specific tasks or behaviors
• Intrinsic rewards
– the natural rewards associated with
performing a task or activity for its own
sake
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13-1
Extrinsic Rewards
Extrinsic Rewards
motivate people to:
•
•
•
•
Join the organization
Regularly attend their jobs
Perform their jobs well
Stay with the organization
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Intrinsic Rewards
Intrinsic Rewards include:
• Sense of accomplishment
• Feeling of responsibility
• Chance to learn something new
• The fun that comes from performing
an interesting, challenging, and
engaging task
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The Most Important Rewards
• Good benefits
Extrinsic
• Health insurance
• Job security
• Vacation time
• Interesting work
Intrinsic
• Learning new skills
• Independent work situations
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Motivating with the Basics
• Start by asking people what their needs
are
• Satisfy lower-order needs first
• Expect peoples needs to change
• As needs change and lower-order needs
are satisfied, create opportunities for
employees to satisfy higher-order needs
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Adding Rewards to the Model
22
Equity Theory
People will be motivated at work when
they perceive that they are being treated
fairly. In particular, equity theory stresses
the importance of perceptions.
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13-2
Components of Equity Theory
• Inputs
– employee contributions to the organization
• Outcomes
– rewards employees receive from the organization
• Referents
– comparison others
• Outcome/input (O/I) ratio
Outcomesself
= Outcomesreferent
Inputsself
Inputsreferent
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Inequity
When a person’s O/I ratio differs
from their referent’s O/I ratio
• Kinds of inequity
– Underreward
• your O/I ratio is worse than yours referent’s O/I ratio
• experience anger or frustration
– Overreward
• your O/I ratio is better than yours referent’s I/O ratio
• experience guilt
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Reacting to Inequity
• Decreasing or withholding inputs
• Increasing outcomes
• Rationalize or distort inputs to outcomes
• Changing the referent
• Employees may leave
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Adding Equity Theory to the Model
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13-2
Motivating with Equity Theory
• Start by looking for and correcting major
inequities
• Reduce employees’ inputs
• Make sure decision-making processes are
fair
– distributive justice
• The degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly
distributed
– procedural justice
• The fairness of the procedures used to make reward
allocation decisions.
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13-2
Expectancy Theory
People will be motivated to the extent to
which they believe that their efforts will
lead to good performance, that good
performance will be rewarded, and that
they will be offered attractive rewards.
People make conscious choices about their
motivation
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Components of Expectancy Theory
Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x
Instrumentality
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13-3
Expectancy Theory
• Valence
– The attractiveness or desirability of various
rewards or outcomes.
• Expectancy
– The perceived relationship between effort and
performance.
• Instrumentality
– The perceived relationship between performance
and rewards.
• Motivation=Valence x Expectancy x
Instrumentality
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Motivating with Expectancy Theory
13-3
•
Systematically gather information to find out
what employees want from their jobs
•
Take specific steps to link rewards to
individual performance in a clear and
understandable way
•
Empower employees to make decisions if
management really wants them to believe that
their hard work and effort will lead to good
performance
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Adding Expectancy Theory to the Model
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13-3
Reinforcement Theory
Behavior is a function of its consequences,
behaviors followed by positive consequences
will occur more frequently, and behaviors
followed by negative consequences, or not
followed by positive consequences, will occur
less frequently.
•Reinforcement
•Reinforcement contingencies
•Schedule of reinforcement
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13-4
Reinforcement Theory
• Reinforcement has two parts:
reinforcement contingencies and schedules
of reinforcement.
– Reinforcement contingencies are the cause-andeffect relationships between the performance of
specific behaviors and specific consequences.
– A schedule of reinforcement is the set of rules
regarding reinforcement contingencies, such as
which behaviors will be reinforced, which
consequences will follow those behaviors, and
the schedule by which those consequences will
be delivered.
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Reinforcement Contingencies
• Positive reinforcement
– Follow behaviors with desirable consequences
(strengthens behavior, increases its frequency)
• Negative reinforcement(Avoidance learning)
– When employees perform a specific behavior to avoid
an unpleasant consequence. (strengthens behavior,
increases its frequency)
• Punishment
– Weakens behavior by following behaviors with
unpleasant consequences(weakens behavior, less
likely to occur.)
• Extinction
– positive consequence no longer allowed to follow a
previously reinforced behavior. (weakens behavior,
less likely to occur)
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Schedules for Delivering Reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement schedules
– a consequence follows every instance of a behavior.
– For example, employees working on a piece-rate pay system
earn money (consequence) for every part they manufacture
(the behavior). The more they produce, they more they earn.
• Intermittent reinforcement schedules
– consequences are delivered after a specified or average time
has elapsed or after a specified or average number of
behaviors has occurred.
– there are four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules.
– Two of these are based on time and are called interval
reinforcement schedules, while the other two, known as ratio
schedules, are based on behaviors
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Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed
Interval
(Time)
Ratio
(Behavior)
consequences follow
behavior after a fixed
time has elapsed
Ex. paychecks
Consequences follow
a specific number of
behaviors
Ex. Bonus after 10 sales
9 sales would not
receive a bonus
Variable
Consequences follow
behavior after different
times that vary around
an average time
Ex. Bonus receives at 80
or 100 days on a 90 day
schedule
Consequences follow
a different number of
behaviors that vary
around an average
number
Ex. Bonus after 7 or 11 or
9 sales
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Motivating with Reinforcement
Theory
• Five steps of reinforcement theory:
– Identify, measure, analyze, intervene, evaluate
• Don’t reinforce the wrong behaviors
• Correctly administer punishment at the
appropriate time
• Choose the simplest and most effective
schedule of reinforcement
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Reinforcement Theory
• Identify means identifying critical, observable,
performance-related behaviors
• Measure means measuring the baseline
frequencies of these behaviors
• Analyze means analyzing the causes and
consequences of these behaviors
• Intervene means changing the organization by
using positive and negative reinforcement to
increase the frequency of these critical behaviors
• Evaluate means evaluating the extent to which
the intervention actually changed workers'
behavior.
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Adding Reinforcement Theory to the Model
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13-4
Goal-Setting Theory
People will be motivated to the extent that
they accept specific, challenging goals and
receive feedback that indicates their
progress toward goal achievement.
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13-5
Components of Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal specificity
– the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and
unambiguous
• Goal difficulty
– is the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to
accomplish
• Goal acceptance
– the extent to which people consciously understand
and agree to goals
• Performance feedback
– information about the quality or quantity of past
performance and indicates whether progress is being
made toward the accomplishment of a goal
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Motivating with Goal-Setting Theory
• Assign employees specific, challenging
goals
• Make sure workers truly accept
organizational goals
• Provide frequent, specific, performancerelated feedback
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Adding Goal-Setting Theory to the Model
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13-5
Motivating with the Integrated Model
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