Skeletal System
 Identify the subdivisions of the skeleton as axial or appendicular.
List at least three functions of the skeletal system. = Support, Protection,Blood Cell Production, Movement, Mineral StorageCalcium
Name the four main kinds of bones. Long Bones --- Femur; Short Bones – Carpals; Irregular bones -- vertebrae.Flat bones -- The
bones of the skull
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Identify the major anatomical areas of a long bone. Diagram
Explain the role of bone salts and the organic matrix (collagen fibers) in making bone both hard and flexible.
Describe briefly the process of bone formation in the fetus and summarize the events of bone remodeling throughout life.
Bone remodeling involves the removal of mineralized bone by osteoclasts followed by the formation of bone matrix
through the osteoblasts that subsequently become mineralized.
Describe how the skull of a newborn infant (or fetus) differs from that of an adult, and explain the function of fontanels.
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Name the parts of a typical vertebra and explain in general how the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae differ from
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one another.
Identify on a skeleton or diagram the bones of the shoulder and pelvic girdles and their attached limbs. Diagram
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Name the three major categories of joints and compare the amount of movement allowed by each.
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Endocrine System
 Define hormone and target organ. Hormones are your body's chemical messengers. They travel in your bloodstream to
tissues or organs. a tissue or organ on which a hormone exerts its action; generally, a tissue or organ with appropriate
receptors for a hormone
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Describe how hormones bring about their effects in the body. They work slowly, over time, and affect many different
processes, including: Growth and development,, Metabolism, Sexual function, Reproduction, Mood
 On an appropriate diagram, identify the major endocrine glands and tissues.
 List hormones produced by the endocrine glands and discuss their general functions.
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Define negative feedback and describe its role in regulating blood levels of the various hormones. a decrease in function
in response to a stimulus. Discuss ways in which hormones promote body homeostasis by giving examples of hormonal
actions. Blood glucose and calcium
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Describe major pathological consequences of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of the hormones considered in this
chapter.
Hormone
hypersecretion
hyposecretion
Growth Hormone
gigantism in children and
acromegaly in adults
pituitary dwarfism
ADH
diabetes insipidus
Thyroid
Graves's disease
Cretinism, myxedema, goiter
Parathyroid
demineralization of bone,
stones in the urinary tract
muscle tetany
Insulin
hypoglycemia
Type I Diabetes, Type II
Diabetes
Adrenal Gland
(corticosteroids)
Adrenal gland (epinephrine
and norepinephrine)
Cushing's syndrome
Adrenal Gland
(glucocorticoids and
mineralocorticoids)
hypertension,
hyperglycemia, nervousness,
sweating
Addison's Disease
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Blood
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Describe the composition and volume of whole blood.
Describe the composition of plasma and discuss its importance in the body.
List the cell types making up the formed elements, and describe the major functions of each type.
 Define anemia, polycythemia, and list possible causes for each condition.
blood does not carry enough oxygen to the rest of your body. The most common cause of anemia is not having enough iron
Being exposed to toxic substances, such as pesticides,
Aplastic anemia= bone marrow doesn't make enough new blood
arsenic, and benzene; Radiation therapy and chemotherapy
cells.
for cancer ; Certain medicines;Infections such as hepatitis,
Epstein-Barr virus, or HIV
Sickle cell anemia-body produces abnormally shaped red blood cells.
= crescent or sickle. ;get stuck in blood vessels, blocking blood flow.
A genetic problem causes sickle cell anemia
thalassemia, your body has problems making hemoglobin, the
protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen through your body.
Pernicious anemia is a decrease in red blood cells that occurs when
your intestines cannot properly absorb vitamin B12.
Polycythemia =bone marrow disease that leads to an abnormal
increase in the number of blood cells (primarily red blood cells).
a genetic disease, can be mild or severe
Low oxygen levels (high altitude
increases in the production of erythropoietin
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Describe the blood-clotting process
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Describe the ABO and Rh blood groups.
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Explain the basis for a transfusion reaction. Your immune system can usually tell its own blood cells from blood cells from
another person. If other blood cells enter your body, your immune system may make antibodies against them. These
antibodies will work to destroy the blood cells that your immune system does not recognize.
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Respiratory System
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Name the organs forming the respiratory passageway from the nasal cavity to the alveoli of the lungs (or identify them on
a diagram or model) and describe the function of each.
Describe several protective mechanisms of the respiratory system. Mobile cells on the alveolar surface called phagocytes
seek out deposited particles, bind to them, ingest them, kill any that are living, and digest them. Phagocytes in alveoli of the
lungs are called alveolar macrophages tiny muscular projections (cilia) on the cells that line the airways. The airways are
covered by a liquid layer of mucus that is propelled by the cilia. These tiny muscles beat more than 1,000 times a minute,
moving the mucus that lines the trachea about 0.5 to 1 centimeter per minute. Particles and pathogens that are trapped on this
mucus layer are cleared to the mouth and swallowed.
Describe the structure and function of the lungs and the pleural coverings. Pleural membranes are air-tight membranes which
envelop the lungs. The external membranes cling to the ribs, the internal pleural membranes cling to the lungs. When the
lungs expand, it is because the rib expands and the lungs cling to the ribs. The diaphragm contracts (goes down) as well. And
when ribs go down and in during expiration, the lungs go down as well. The diaphragm relaxes (goes up) as well.
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 Define cellular respiration, external respiration, internal respiration, pulmonary ventilation, expiration, and inspiration.
Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert
biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.
Inhalation: inspiration, the entrance of air into the lungs. Inspiration is active, it is controlled by the respiratory center in the
medulla oblongata in the brain. The respiratory centre sends out impulses by way of nerves to the diaphragm and the
intercostal muscles of the rib cage. This causes the muscles to contract, and the rib cage moves up and out. The diaphragm
contracts and lowers. à Increased size of the thoracic cavity. Air pressure in alveoli and intrepleural pressure decreases. This
is negative pressure.
Exhalation: expiration, the exit of air from the lungs. It is passive, the diaphragm relaxes (becomes dome-shaped) and the rib
cage moves down and in (creating less space)à lungs push air out.
External respiration: blood and air in lungs
-rids of waste CO2 in the form of carbonic acid into lungs and grabs O2 in the form of deoxyhemaglobin from lungs into blood
Internal respiration: blood and tissue fluid
-rids of O2 into tissue fluid from dissociation of oxyhemoglobin
-blood grabs CO2 by hemoglobin reacting with CO2 to produce carbaminohemoglobin, and CO2 reacting with H+ to produce
carbonic acid.
Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, exchanges gases between the outside air and the alveoli of the lungs
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Explain how the respiratory muscles cause volume changes that lead to air flow into and out of the lungs (breathing).
Define the following respiratory volumes: tidal volume, vital capacity, expiratory reserve volume, inspiratory reserve
volume, and residual air..
Describe the process of gas exchanges in the lungs and tissues.
Oxygen diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the alveoli to a lower partial pressure in the pulmonary capillaries. Oxygen diffuses
from a higher partial pressure in the tissue capillaries to a lower partial pressure in the tissue spaces.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the tissues to a lower partial pressure in the tissue capillaries. Carbon dioxide
diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the pulmonary capillaries to a lower partial pressure in the alveoli.
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Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood.
Most (98.5%) oxygen is transported bound to hemoglobin. Some (1.5%) oxygen is transported dissolved in plasma.
Carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ions (70%), in combination with blood proteins (23%), and in solution in plasma (7%).
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Name the brain areas involved in control of respiration. Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata respond to changes in blood
pH. Usually changes in blood pH are produced by changes in blood carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is the major chemical regulator of respiration. An increase in blood carbon dioxide causes a decrease in blood
pH, resulting in increased ventilation.
Name several physical factors that influence respiratory rate. The most common and obvious cause is physical exercise!
Then of course fear, fever and many pathologic conditions, predominantly respiratory (asthma, COPD, pneumonia, etc) and
cardiac (like heart failure)
Drugs can also affect the breathing rate (opioids like heroin can slow it down, sometimes to a very dangerous level, while other
substances, like caffeine, can increase it), as well as imbalances in the concentration of several normal body components (e.g.
glucose)
Explain the relative importance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in modifying the rate and depth of breathing. Chemoreceptors in
the medulla oblongata respond to changes in blood pH. Usually changes in blood pH are produced by changes in blood
carbon dioxide.
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Carbon dioxide is the major chemical regulator of respiration. An increase in blood carbon dioxide causes a decrease in blood
pH, resulting in increased ventilation.
Low blood levels of oxygen can stimulate chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies, resulting in increased ventilation.
Urinary System
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 Describe the location of the kidneys in the body.
In humans, the kidneys are two small organs located near the vertebral column at the small of the back. The left kidney lies a
little higher than the right kidney.
 Identify the following regions of a kidney (longitudinal section): hilum, cortex, medulla, medullary pyramids, calyces,
pelvis, and renal columns.
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Recognize that the nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney and describe its anatomy.
Describe the process of urine formation, identifying the areas of the nephron that are responsible for filtration, reabsorption,
and secretion.
three processes occurring in successive portions of the nephron accomplish the function of urine formation:
Filtration of water and dissolved substances out of the blood in the glomeruli and into Bowman's capsule;
Reabsorption of water and dissolved substances out of the kidney tubules back into the blood (note that this process prevents
substances needed by the body from being lost in the urine);
Secretion of hydrogen ions (H+), potassium ions (K+), ammonia (NH3), and certain drugs out of the blood and into the kidney
tubules, where they are eventually eliminated in the urine.
 NITROGENOUS WASTES .. Ammonia is a toxic by-product of the metabolic removal of nitrogen from proteins and
nucleic acids. convert the ammonia to urea or uric acid, which conserves water because these less toxic wastes can be
transported in the body in more concentrated form
Describe the composition of normal urine. Approximately 95% of the volume of urine is due to water and 5% consists of
chemicals that are dissolved in water.
Solutes found in urine may be classified as irons or organic molecules including urea, uric acid, creatinine, sodium chloride,
hormones, carbohydrates, fatty acids, enzymes, mucins and pigments. Some ions include: Potassium, magnesium, calcium,
chloride, aluminium, phosphates and sulphates
List abnormal urinary components.
Abnormal urine can have:
1.Carbohydrates
2.Proteins
3.ketone bodies
4.Blood
5.Bile salts
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6.Bile pigments
7.Fats
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Describe the general structure and function of the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
Describe the difference in control of the external and internal urethral sphincters.
Reproductive System
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Discuss the common purpose of the reproductive system organs.
When provided with a model or diagram, identify the organs of the male reproductive system and discuss the general
function of each.
Name the endocrine and exocrine products of the testes.
Discuss the composition of semen and name the glands that produce it.
Trace the pathway followed by a sperm from the testis to the body exterior.
Define erection, ejaculation, and circumcision.
Define meiosis and spermatogenesis.
Describe the structure of a sperm and relate its structure to its function.
Describe the effect of FSH and LH on testis functioning.
When provided with an appropriate model or diagram, identify the organs of the female reproductive system and discuss
the general function of each.
Describe the functions of the vesicular follicle and corpus luteum of the ovary.
Define endometrium, myometrium, and ovulation.
Indicate the location of the following regions of the female uterus: cervix, fundus, body.
Define oogenesis.
Describe the influence of FSH and LH on ovarian function.
Describe the phases and controls of the menstrual cycle.