Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences
4th Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Çengel, John M. Cimbala, Robert H. Turner
McGraw-Hill, 2012
Chapter 9
POWER AND REFRIGERATION
CYCLES
Lecture slides by
Mehmet Kanoğlu
Copyright © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objectives
• Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles.
• Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power
cycles.
• Review the operation of reciprocating engines.
• Solve problems based on the Otto and Diesel cycles.
• Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle and the Brayton
cycle with regeneration.
• Analyze vapor power cycles in which the working fluid is
alternately vaporized and condensed.
• Investigate ways to modify the basic Rankine vapor power
cycle to increase the cycle thermal efficiency.
• Analyze the reheat vapor power cycles.
• Analyze the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
• Discuss the operation of refrigeration and heat pump systems.
2
9-1 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE
ANALYSIS OF POWER CYCLES
Thermal efficiency
Most power-producing devices operate on cycles.
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle
closely but is made up totally of internally reversible
processes is called an.
Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the
highest thermal efficiency of all heat engines
operating between the same temperature levels.
Unlike ideal cycles, they are totally reversible, and
unsuitable as a realistic model.
of heat engines:
Modeling is a
powerful
engineering tool
that provides great
insight and
simplicity at the
The analysis of many complex
expense of some
processes can be reduced to
loss in accuracy.
a manageable level by
utilizing some idealizations.3
The ideal cycles are internally reversible, but, unlike the Carnot cycle, they are not
necessarily externally reversible. Therefore, the thermal efficiency of an ideal
cycle, in general, is less than that of a totally reversible cycle operating between
the same temperature limits. However, it is still considerably higher than the
thermal efficiency of an actual cycle because of the idealizations utilized.
4
On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the
area enclosed by the cyclic curve to
the area under the heat-addition
process curve represents the thermal
efficiency of the cycle. Any
modification that increases the ratio
of these two areas will also increase
the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Care should be exercised
in the interpretation of the
results from ideal cycles.
The idealizations and simplifications in the
analysis of power cycles:
1. The cycle does not involve any friction.
Therefore, the working fluid does not
experience any pressure drop as it flows in
pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
2. All expansion and compression processes
take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various
components of a system are well
insulated, and heat transfer through them
is negligible.
On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed
by the process curve represents the net work of the
cycle.
5
9-2 THE CARNOT CYCLE AND
ITS VALUE IN ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible
processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic
expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic
compression.
For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal efficiency
increases with an increase in the average temperature
at which heat is supplied to the system or with a
decrease in the average temperature at which heat is
rejected from the system.
A steady-flow Carnot engine.
P-v and T-s diagrams of
a Carnot cycle.
6
9-3 AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
Air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed loop
and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-rejection process that restores the
working fluid to its initial state.
The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process in ideal cycles.
Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered
to be air with constant specific heats at room temperature (25°C).
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are
applicable.
7
9-4 AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Compression ratio
•
•
Mean effective
pressure
Spark-ignition (SI) engines
Compression-ignition (CI) engines
Nomenclature for reciprocating engines.
8
9-5 OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams.
9
Four-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution
Two-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution
T-s diagram
of the ideal
Otto cycle.
The two-stroke engines are
generally less efficient than
their four-stroke counterparts
but they are relatively simple
and inexpensive, and they
have high power-to-weight
and power-to-volume ratios.
Schematic of a two-stroke
reciprocating engine.
10
11
In SI engines,
the
compression
ratio is limited
by
autoignition
or engine
knock.
Thermal efficiency of the ideal
Otto cycle as a function of
compression ratio (k = 1.4).
The thermal efficiency of the
Otto cycle increases with the
specific heat ratio k of the
working fluid.
12
9-6 DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the
compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of
autoignition (engine knock). Therefore, diesel engines
can be designed to operate at much higher compression
ratios than SI engines, typically between 12 and 24.
1-2 isentropic
compression
2-3 constantvolume heat
addition
3-4 isentropic
expansion
4-1 constantvolume heat
rejection.
In diesel engines, the spark plug is replaced
by a fuel injector, and only air is compressed
during the compression process.
13
Cutoff
ratio
for the same compression ratio
Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Diesel cycle
as a function of
compression and
cutoff ratios
(k=1.4).
14
Dual cycle: A more realistic
QUESTIONS ???
ideal cycle model for modern,
high-speed compression ignition
engine.
Diesel engines operate at
higher air-fuel ratios than
gasoline engines. Why?
Despite higher power to
weight ratios, two-stroke
engines are not used in
automobiles. Why?
The stationary diesel
engines are among the
most efficient power
producing devices (about
50%). Why?
P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle.
What is a turbocharger?
Why are they mostly used
in diesel engines
compared to gasoline
engines.
15
9-7 BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition
process from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a
constant-pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
An open-cycle gas-turbine engine.
A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.
16
Pressure
ratio
T-s and P-v diagrams for
the ideal Brayton cycle.
Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Brayton
cycle as a
function of the
pressure ratio.
17
The two major application areas of gasturbine engines are aircraft propulsion
and electric power generation.
The highest temperature in the cycle is
limited by the maximum temperature that
the turbine blades can withstand. This
also limits the pressure ratios that can be
used in the cycle.
The air in gas turbines supplies the
necessary oxidant for the combustion of
the fuel, and it serves as a coolant to
keep the temperature of various
components within safe limits. An air–fuel
ratio of 50 or above is not uncommon.
The fraction of the turbine work
used to drive the compressor is
called the back work ratio.
18
Development of Gas Turbines
1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components (turbines,
compressors):
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling, regeneration or
recuperation, and reheating).
Deviation of Actual GasTurbine Cycles from Idealized
Ones
Reasons: Irreversibilities in turbine and
compressors, pressure drops, heat losses
Isentropic efficiencies of the compressor
and turbine
The deviation of an actual gasturbine cycle from the ideal
Brayton cycle as a result of
irreversibilities.
19
9-8 THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH
REGENERATION
In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust
gas leaving the turbine is often considerably higher than
the temperature of the air leaving the compressor.
Therefore, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor
can be heated by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow
heat exchanger (a regenerator or a recuperator).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a
result of regeneration since less fuel is used for the same
work output.
T-s diagram of a
Brayton cycle with
regeneration.
A gas-turbine
engine with
regenerator.
20
Effectiveness
of regenerator
Effectiveness under coldair standard assumptions
Under cold-air
standard assumptions
T-s diagram of a Brayton
cycle with regeneration.
The thermal efficiency
depends on the ratio of the
minimum to maximum
temperatures as well as the
pressure ratio.
Regeneration is most
effective at lower pressure
ratios and low minimum-tomaximum temperature ratios.
Can regeneration
be used at high
pressure ratios?
Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Brayton
cycle with and
without
regeneration.
21
9-9 THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature
limits but it is not a suitable model for power cycles. Because:
Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems severely limits the
maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (374°C for water)
Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of the
impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear.
Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic compression to extremely high
pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures.
1-2 isothermal heat
addition in a boiler
2-3 isentropic expansion
in a turbine
3-4 isothermal heat
rejection in a condenser
4-1 isentropic
compression in a
compressor
T-s diagram of two Carnot vapor cycles.
22
9-10 RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Many of the impracticalities associated with
the Carnot cycle can be eliminated by
superheating the steam in the boiler and
condensing it completely in the condenser.
The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle,
which is the ideal cycle for vapor power
plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not
involve any internal irreversibilities.
The simple ideal
Rankine cycle.
23
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
Steady-flow energy equation
The efficiency of power plants in
the U.S. is often expressed in
terms of heat rate, which is the
amount of heat supplied, in Btu’s,
to generate 1 kWh of electricity.
The thermal efficiency can be interpreted
as the ratio of the area enclosed by the
cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under
the heat-addition process.
24
9-11 DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR
POWER CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a
result of irreversibilities in various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common
sources of irreversibilities.
Isentropic efficiencies
(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
25
9-12 HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE
EFFICIENCY OF THE RANKINE CYCLE?
The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency
of a power cycle is the same: Increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
To take advantage of the increased
efficiencies at low pressures, the condensers
of steam power plants usually operate well
below the atmospheric pressure. There is a
lower limit to this pressure depending on the
temperature of the cooling medium
Side effect: Lowering the condenser
pressure increases the moisture content of
the steam at the final stages of the turbine.
The effect of lowering the
condenser pressure on the
ideal Rankine cycle.
26
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures
(Increases Thigh,avg)
Both the net work and heat input
increase as a result of
superheating the steam to a higher
temperature. The overall effect is
an increase in thermal efficiency
since the average temperature at
which heat is added increases.
Superheating to higher
temperatures decreases the
moisture content of the steam at
the turbine exit, which is desirable.
The effect of superheating the
steam to higher temperatures
on the ideal Rankine cycle.
The temperature is limited by
metallurgical considerations.
Presently the highest steam
temperature allowed at the turbine
inlet is about 620°C.
27
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
For a fixed turbine inlet temperature,
the cycle shifts to the left and the
moisture content of steam at the
turbine exit increases. This side
effect can be corrected by reheating
the steam.
The effect of increasing the boiler
pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle.
Today many modern steam power
plants operate at supercritical
pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and
have thermal efficiencies of about
40% for fossil-fuel plants and 34%
for nuclear plants.
A supercritical Rankine cycle.
28
9-13 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures
without facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures. It is limited metallurgically.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between (reheat)
The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.
29
The single reheat in a modern power
plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to
5% by increasing the average
temperature at which heat is transferred
to the steam.
The average temperature during the
reheat process can be increased by
increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages. As the number of stages is
increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal
process at the maximum temperature.
The use of more than two reheat stages
is not practical. The theoretical
improvement in efficiency from the
second reheat is about half of that which
results from a single reheat.
The reheat temperatures are very close
or equal to the turbine inlet temperature.
The optimum reheat pressure is about
one-fourth of the maximum cycle
pressure.
The average temperature at which
heat is transferred during reheating
increases as the number of reheat
stages is increased.
30
9-14 REFRIGERATORS
AND HEAT PUMPS
The transfer of heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature one requires
special devices called refrigerators.
Another device that transfers heat from a
low-temperature medium to a hightemperature one is the heat pump.
Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially
the same devices; they differ in their
objectives only.
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat
(QL) from the cold medium; the objective of a heat
pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm medium.
for fixed values of
QL and QH
31
9-15 THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
The reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrig. cycle operating between TL and TH.
It is not a suitable model for refrigeration cycles since processes 2-3 and 4-1 are not practical
because Process 2-3 involves the compression of a liquid–vapor mixture, which requires a
compressor that will handle two phases, and process 4-1 involves the expansion of highmoisture-content refrigerant in a turbine.
Both COPs increase as
the difference between the
two temperatures
decreases, that is, as TL
rises or TH falls.
Schematic of a
Carnot refrigerator
and T-s diagram
of the reversed
Carnot cycle.
32
9-16 THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the ideal model for refrigeration
systems. Unlike the reversed Carnot cycle, the refrigerant is vaporized completely
before it is compressed and the turbine is replaced with a throttling device.
This is the most
widely used cycle
for refrigerators,
A-C systems, and
heat pumps.
Schematic and T-s
diagram for the ideal
vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle.
33
The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves an irreversible (throttling)
process to make it a more realistic model for the actual systems.
Replacing the expansion valve by a turbine is not practical since the added
benefits cannot justify the added cost and complexity.
Steady-flow
energy balance
An ordinary
household
refrigerator.
The P-h diagram of an ideal vaporcompression refrigeration cycle.
34
9-17 ACTUAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle differs from the ideal one owing
mostly to the irreversibilities that occur in various components, mainly due to fluid
friction (causes pressure drops) and heat transfer to or from the surroundings.
The COP decreases as a result
of irreversibilities.
DIFFERENCES
Non-isentropic compression
Superheated vapor at evaporator exit
Subcooled liquid at condenser exit
Pressure drops in condenser and evaporator
Schematic and
T-s diagram for
the actual
vaporcompression
refrigeration
35
cycle.
Summary
•
Basic considerations in the analysis of power cycles
•
The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering
•
Air-standard assumptions
•
An overview of reciprocating engines
•
Otto cycle: The ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines
•
Diesel cycle: The ideal cycle for compression-ignition engines
•
Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines
•
The Brayton cycle with regeneration
•
The Carnot vapor cycle
•
Rankine cycle: The ideal cycle for vapor power cycles
•
Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from idealized ones
•
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
•
The ideal reheat Rankine cycle
•
Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
•
The Reversed Carnot Cycle
•
The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
•
Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
36