Chapter 9
1967- Declared “endangered” under the
US Endangered Species Act
1999- Reduced to “threatened” under the
US Endangered Species Act
2007- De-listed
Becoming common in coastal GA!
Sustaining Biodiversity:
The Species Approach
Chapter Overview Questions
 How
do biologists estimate extinction rates,
and how do human activities affect these
rates?
 Why
should we care about protecting wild
species?
 Which
human activities endanger wildlife?
Chapter Overview Questions
 How
can we help prevent premature
extinction of species?
 What
is reconciliation ecology, and how can it
help prevent premature extinction of species?
Core Case Study:
The Passenger Pigeon - Gone
Forever
 Once
the most
numerous bird on earth.
 In 1813, the famous
bird expert and artist
John James Audobon
saw a flock the took 3
days to fly by!
Figure 11-1
Core Case Study:
The Passenger Pigeon - Gone
Forever
 Pigeon
hunting became
a big business.
 By 1900 they became
extinct from overharvest and habitat
loss.
Figure 11-1
Case Study: Passenger Pigeon
Why Should We Care About
Biodiversity?
 Use
Value: usefulness
in terms of economic
and ecological
services (many!).
 Nonuse Value:
·existence value
(a.k.a. intrinsic value)
·aesthetic value
·bequest value
1900: 315,000 wild orangutans
2007: <20,000 (losing 2000/yr)
(for future generations)
Figure 10-3
SPECIES EXTINCTION
 Species



can become extinct:
Locally: A species is no longer found in an area
it once inhabited but is still found elsewhere in
the world.
Ecologically: Occurs when so few members of a
species are left they no longer play its ecological
role.
Biologically: Species is no longer found on the
earth.
Global Extinction
 Some
animals have become prematurely
extinct because of human activities.
 “The large, the slow, and the tasty”
-E.O.Wilson
next
Passenger pigeon
Great auk
Dodo
Dusky seaside
sparrow
Aepyornis
(Madagascar)
Fig. 11-2, p. 223
Endangered and Threatened
Species: Ecological Smoke Alarms
 Endangered
species: so few individual
survivors that it could soon become extinct.
 Threatened species: still abundant in its
natural range but is likely to become
endangered in the near future (high current
losses)
next
Grizzly bear
Utah prairie dog
Kirkland’s
warbler
Knowlton
cactus
Florida
manatee
Swallowtail
butterfly
Humpback
chub
Golden lion
tamarin
African elephant
Siberian tiger
Fig. 11-3, p. 224
Giant panda Black-footed Whooping
crane
ferret
Mountain gorilla Florida
panther
California
condor
Northern
spotted owl
Hawksbill
sea turtle
Blue whale
Black
rhinoceros
Fig. 11-3, p. 224
SPECIES
EXTINCTION
 Some
species
have
characteristics
that make them
vulnerable to
ecological and
biological
extinction.
Next
Characteristic
Examples
Low reproductive rate
(K-strategist)
Blue whale, giant panda,
rhinoceros
Specialized niche
Blue whale, giant panda,
Everglades kite
Narrow distribution
Many island species,
elephant seal, desert pupfish
a.k.a. endemic species
Feeds at high trophic level
Bengal tiger, bald eagle,
grizzly bear
Fixed migratory patterns
Blue whale, whooping crane,
sea turtles, many songbirds, esp.
neotropical migrants
Rare
Many island species,
African violet, some orchids
Commercially valuable
Snow leopard, tiger,
elephant, rhinoceros,
rare plants and birds
Need large territories
California condor, grizzly
bear, Florida panther
Fig. 11-4, p. 225
Estimating Species Extinction
 It



is very difficult to catalogue extinction
Extinction takes a long time to happen and is
difficult to measure (need long term pop. data)
We have only identified 1.75 million of the world’s
4 to 100 million species (likely about 14 million)
We know little about most of the species that
have been identified
Figure 11-5
Precautionary Principle
 Because
it is difficult to know how many
species are becoming extinct, many people
advocate the precautionary principal.
 The
precautionary principal states that if you
are not exactly sure how much damage is
being caused, it is best to take preventive
measures now until you can be sure.
 Especially
holds true if the potential loss is
catastrophic (most people never need their
life insurace, but it’s a good idea to have it!)
SPECIES EXTINCTION
 Scientists
use measurements and models to
estimate extinction rates.


The International Union for the Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes
an annual Red List, listing the world’s threatened
species.
The 2015 Red List contains about 23,000
species at risk for extinction.
Figure 11-5
Percentage Threatened with Extinction
Due to Human Activities
34% (51% of freshwater species)
Fish
25%
Mammals
20%
Reptiles
Plants
Birds
14%
12%
Fig. 11-5, p. 225
SPECIES EXTINCTION
 Scientists
use
models to
estimate the risk
of particular
species becoming
extinct or
endangered.
Next
Number
of species
existing
5 million
14 million
50 million
100 million
Effects of a 0.1% extinction rate
5,000 extinct per year
14,000 extinct per year
50,000 extinct per year
100,000 extinct per year
Number of years until one million
species are extinct
Fig. 11-6, p. 226
IMPORTANCE OF WILD SPECIES
 We
should not cause the premature
extinction of species because of the
economic and ecological services they
provide.
 Some
believe that each wild species has an
inherent right to exist.

Some people distinguish between the survival
rights among various types of species (plants vs.
animals).
extrinsic and intrinsic value…connect
to use value and non-use value.
 Review
Biophilia vs Biophobia
E.O. Wilson
literally, “love of life”, meaning love of
the natural world.
 Biophilia
Connotative meaning: we are one with, part of, and
totally connected to all of life on earth.
 Biophobia
Fear of the natural world.
Connotative meaning: Nature is the enemy, to be
dominated and exploited.
HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION,
AND FRAGMENTATION
 Conservation
biologists summarize the most
important causes of premature extinction as
“CHIPPO”:






Climate Change
Habitat destruction, degradation, and
fragmentation
Invasive species
Population growth
Pollution
Overharvest
HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION,
AND FRAGMENTATION
 The
greatest threat to species is the loss,
degradation, and fragmentation of habitat.
Next
NATURAL CAPITAL
DEGRADATION
Causes of Depletion and Premature Extinction of Wild Species
Underlying Causes
• Population growth
• Rising resource use
• Undervaluing natural capital
• Poverty
Direct Causes
• Habitat loss
• Pollution
• Commercial hunting and poaching
• Habitat degradation and
fragmentation
• Introduction of nonnative
species
• Climate change
• Sale of exotic pets and decorative
plants
• Overfishing
• Predator and pest control
Fig. 9-10, p. 193
HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION,
AND FRAGMENTATION
 Reduction
in
ranges of four
wildlife species,
mostly due to
habitat loss
and
overharvest.
NEXT
Indian Tiger
Range 100 years ago
Range today
(about 2,300 left)
Fig. 11-8a, p. 230
Black Rhino
Range in 1700
Range today
(about 3,600 left)
Fig. 11-8b, p. 230
African Elephant
Probable range 1600
Range today
Fig. 11-8c, p. 230
Asian or Indian Elephant
Former range
Range today
(34,000–54,000 left)
Fig. 11-8d, p. 230
Case Study:
A Disturbing Message from the Birds
 70% of bird species are declining in number
 Especially true of migratory bird species A.K.A.
“Neotropical migrants”
Next
Cerulean warbler
Florida scrub jay
Sprague’s pipit
California
gnatcatcher
Bichnell’s thrush Black-capped
vireo
Kirtland’s warbler Henslow’s
sparrow
Golden-cheeked
warbler
Bachman’s warbler
Fig. 11-10, p. 232
Number of
bird species
609
400
200
1
Fig. 11-9, p. 231
Case Study:
A Disturbing Message from the Birds
 Worldwide,
70% of the
world’s 10,000 bird
species are declining
 The majority of the
world’s bird species are
found in South
America.

Threatened with habitat
loss and invasive
species.
NEXT
INVASIVE SPECIES
 Many
Kudzu vine was introduced in
the southeastern U.S. to
control erosion. It has taken
over native species habitats.
nonnative
species provide us
with food, medicine,
and other benefits
but a few can wipe
out native species,
disrupt ecosystems,
and cause large
economic losses.
Figure 11-A
USES FOR KUDZU

Almost every part of the
plant is edible.
 Provides a starch used
in beverages and
gourmet confections.
 Provides herbal
remedies for several
diseases.
 It is a source of fiber for
paper that could replace
use of trees.
Figure 11-A
KUDZU!
Figure 11-A
INVASIVE SPECIES
 Many
invasive species have been introduced
intentionally.
NEXT
Deliberately Introduced Species
Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee
(“Killer bee”)
Marine toad
(Giant toad)
Water hyacinth
Japanese
beetle
Nutria
Hydrilla
Salt cedar
(Tamarisk)
European wild boar
(Feral pig)
Fig. 11-11a, p. 234
INVASIVE SPECIES
 Many
invasive species have been introduced
unintentionally.
NEXT
Accidentally Introduced Species
Sea lamprey
Argentina
(attached to lake trout) fire ant
Formosan termite
Zebra mussel
Brown tree
snake
Asian longhorned beetle
Eurasian ruffe
Asian tiger
mosquito
Common pigeon
(Rock dove)
Gypsy moth larvae
Fig. 11-11b, p. 234
INVASIVE SPECIES
 The
Argentina fire
ant was introduced
to Mobile, Alabama
in 1932 from South
America.


Most probably from
ships.
No natural
predators in North
America.
Figure 11-12
Fire Ants!
Figure 11-12
INVASIVE
SPECIES
 Prevention is the
best way to reduce
threats from invasive
species, because
once they arrive it is
almost impossible to
slow their spread.
Figure 11-13
What Can You Do?
Invasive Species
• Do not allow wild animals to escape.
• Do not spread wild plants to other areas.
• Do not dump the contents of an aquarium into waterways,
wetlands, or storm drains.
• When camping use wood near your campsite instead of bringing
firewood from somewhere else.
• Do not dump unused bait into the water.
• After dogs visit woods or the water brush them before taking
them home.
• After each use clean your vehicle, mountain bike, surfboard,
kayaks, canoes, boats, tent, hiking boots, and other gear before
heading for home.
• Empty all water from canoes, kayaks, dive gear, and other
outdoor equipment before heading home.
• Plant a variety of trees, shrubs, and other plants in your yard to
reduce losses from invasive species.
• Do not buy plants from overseas or swap them with others using
the Internet.
Fig. 11-14, p. 236
Characteristics of
Successful
Invader Species
• High reproductive rate,
short generation time
(r-selected species)
• Pioneer species
• Long lived
Characteristics of
Ecosystems Vulnerable
to Invader Species
• Climate similar to
habitat of invader
• Absence of predators
on invading species
• Early successional
systems
• High dispersal rate
• Release growth-inhibiting
chemicals into soil
• Low diversity of
native species
• Absence of fire
• Generalists
• High genetic variability
• Disturbed by human
activities
Fig. 11-13, p. 236
POPULATION GROWTH,
POLLUTION, AND CLIMATE
CHANGE
 Population
growth, affluenza, and pollution
have promoted the premature extinction of
some species.
 Projected
climate change threatens a number
of species with premature extinction.
Pollution
 Each




Example of
biomagnification of DDT
in an aquatic food chain.
year pesticides:
Kill about 1/5th of the
U.S. honeybee
colonies.
67 million birds.
6 -14 million fish.
Threaten 1/5th of the
U.S.’s endangered
and threatened
species.
Note: Toxins bioaccumulate in the tissues of an
individual organism, but biomagnify through a
NEXT
food chain.
DDT in fish-eating
birds (ospreys)
25 ppm
DDT in large fish
(needle fish)
2 ppm
DDT in small
fish (minnows)
0.5 ppm
DDT in
zooplankton
0.04 ppm
DDT in water
0.000003 ppm,
Fig. 11-15, p. 237
OVEREXPLOITATION
 Killing
predators and pests that bother us or
cause economic losses threatens some
species with premature extinction.
 Some
protected species are killed for their
valuable parts or are sold live to collectors.
 Legal
and illegal trade in wildlife species
used as pets or for decorative purposes
threatens some species with extinction.
OVEREXPLOITATION: Poaching
 The
illegal killing of
wildlife for food or
profit is called
poaching.
 Rhinoceros are often
killed for their horns
and sold illegally on
the black market for
decorative and
medicinal purposes.
Figure 11-16
Case Study:
Rising Demand for Bushmeat in
Africa
 Bushmeat
is meat
from primates
(monkeys or apes)
 Bushmeat hunting
has caused the
local extinction of
many animals in
West Africa.
Figure 11-17
Case Study:
Rising Demand for Bushmeat in
Africa
 Can
spread disease
such as HIV/AIDS
and ebola virus.
 Humans have
always eaten some
bushmeat, but why
has bushmeat
hunting exploded
lately in Africa?
Figure 11-17
Why is Demand for Bushmeat Rising
in Africa?
 Human
population growth
 Making $ supplying restaurants with exotic
meat
 Roads: Accessibility to remote areas
 European companies overfishing coastal
African waters, leaving very few fish for locals.

This has also contributed to Somalian piracy
Figure 11-17
PROTECTING WILD SPECIES: LEGAL
AND ECONOMIC APPROACHES
 International
treaties have helped reduce the
international trade of endangered and
threatened species, but enforcement is
difficult.
 One of the most powerful is the 1975
Convention on International Trade of
Endangered Species (CITES).
• Signed by 169 countries including the USA, lists 900
species that cannot be commercially traded.
INTERNATIONAL TREATIES
 Convention
on Biodiversity- Goals: reverse
delcines in biodiversity & share the benefits
of genetic resources
 Problems:




Lack of enforcement
Lack of severe penalties
Implementation delays
U.S. has not ratified
 Because
of scarcity of inspectors, probably no
more than 1/10th of the illegal wildlife trade in
the U.S. is discovered.
Figure 11-19
Figure 11-19
 For
every live and exotic animal captured &
sold in the pet market, _______
are killed
50
during capture or die in transit.
What Can You Do?
Protecting Species
• Do not buy furs, ivory products, and other
materials made from endangered or threatened
animal species.
• Do not buy wood and paper products produced
by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the
tropics.
• Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish,
and other animals that are taken from the wild.
• Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants that
are taken from the wild.
• Spread the word. Talk to your friends and
relatives about this problem and what they can
do about it.
Fig. 11-21, p. 246
Case Study:
The U.S. Endangered Species Act
 One
of the world’s most far-reaching and
controversial environmental laws is the 1973
U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA).



ESA forbids federal agencies (besides defense
department) to carry out / fund projects that would
jeopardize an endangered species.
Landowners could destroy some habitat under
special agreements with the US Fish & Wildlife
Service.
ESA makes it illegal for Americans to engage in
commerce associated with, or hunt / kill / collect
endangered or threatened species.
Case Study:
The U.S. Endangered Species Act
 Unsuccessful
attempts have been made since
1973 to change the ESA:




Make protection of endangered species voluntary
on private land
Make it harder and more expensive to list a species
Eliminate the need to designate critical habitats
Allow the Secretary of the Interior to permanently
exempt landowners
Case Study:
The U.S. Endangered Species Act
 Biodiversity
hotspots in relation to the largest
concentrations of rare and potentially
endangered species in the U.S.
Next
Top Six Hot Spots
1 Hawaii
2 San Francisco Bay
area
3 Southern
Appalachians
4 Death Valley
5 Southern California
6 Florida Panhandle
Concentration of rare species
Low
Moderate
High
Fig. 11-18, p. 241
Blue Goose, symbol of all US NWR’s
NWR’s: Protect habitat for migratory waterfowl.
PROTECTING WILD SPECIES: THE
SANCTUARY APPROACH
PROTECTING WILD SPECIES: THE
SANCTUARY APPROACH
 The
U.S. has set aside 544
National Wildlife Refuges,
mostly for migratory
waterfowl, but many refuges
are suffering from
environmental degradation.
 Okefenokee is an NWR
Pelican Island was the
nation’s first wildlife refuge.
Figure 11-20
PROTECTING WILD SPECIES: THE
SANCTUARY APPROACH
 Gene
banks, seed banks, botanical gardens
and using farms to raise threatened species
can help prevent extinction, but these options
lack funding and storage space.
Seed Banks
 Svalbard
Global Seed Vault
 Secure
seedbank located on the Norwegian
island of Spitsbergen since January 2008.
 The
seed vault is an attempt to provide
insurance against the loss of seeds in
genebanks; it would serve as a refuge for
seeds in the case of large-scale regional or
global crises. Currently about 360,000
differernt varieties of seed are stored there.
Svalbard Global Seed Vault
Svalbard Global Seed Vault
Svalbard Global Seed Vault
Seed Banks
 Svalbard

Global Seed Vault
Spitsbergen was considered ideal because it lacked
tectonic activity and had permafrost, which aids
preservation. Its being 130 metres (430 ft) above
sea level will keep the site dry even if all land based
ice melts.[9] Locally mined coal provides power for
refrigeration units that further cool the seeds to the
internationally recommended standard of −18 °C
(−0.4 °F).[10] If the equipment fails, at least several
weeks will elapse before the facility rises to the
surrounding sandstone bedrock's temperature of
−3 °C (27 °F).
-Wikipedia
Svalbard Global Seed Vault
 Construction
of the seed vault, which cost
approximately NOK 45 million (US$9 million),
was funded entirely by the Government of
Norway.
 Storage of seeds in the seed vault is free of
charge.
 Now, primary funding for the Svalbard Trust
comes from organisations, such as the Bill &
Melinda Gates Foundation, and from various
governments worldwide.[7]
PROTECTING WILD SPECIES: THE
SANCTUARY APPROACH
 Zoos
and aquariums can also help protect
endangered animal species by preserving
some individuals with the long-term goal of
reintroduction, but suffer from lack of space
and money.
 Avoiding genetic bottlenecks: Need a
minimum of 100 to 500 individuals to sustain
genetic diversity via captive breeding
RECONCILIATION ECOLOGY
 Reconciliation
ecology involves finding ways
to share places we dominate with other
species.



Replacing monoculture grasses with native
species.
Maintaining habitats for insect eating bats can
keep down unwanted insects.
Reduction and elimination of pesticides to protect
non-target organisms (such as vital insect
pollinators).
Using Reconciliation Ecology to
Protect Honeybees
Using Reconciliation Ecology to
Protect Honeybees
Using Reconciliation Ecology to
Protect Bluebirds
 Putting
up bluebird
boxes with holes too
small for (nonnative)
competitors in areas
where trees have
been cut down have
helped reestablish
populations.
Figure 11-B