1450-1750
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, also
called Osmanian Empire or
Uthmaniyah Empire
(1299–1922) was a multiethnic and multi-religious
Turkish-ruled state.
The state was also known as
the Turkish Empire or
Turkey
Republic of Turkey was
officially proclaimed in
1923
Ottoman Empire
At the height of its power (16th–17th century), it
spanned three continents, controlling much of
Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North
Africa, stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in
the west to the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf in
the east, from the edge of Austria, Slovakia and
parts of Ukraine in the north to Sudan, Eritrea,
Somalia and Yemen in the south.
The Ottoman Empire contained 29 provinces, in
addition to the tributary principalities of Moldavia,
Transylvania, and Wallachia [Vlad Tepes aka
Dracula]
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire was at the center of interactions
between the Eastern and Western worlds for six
centuries.
The Ottoman Empire was, in many respects, an Islamic
successor to earlier Mediterranean empires — namely
the Roman and Byzantine empires.
In fact, they claimed they were the inheritors of the two
Romes.
Ottoman Empire
A Short Review
The Golden Age of the Ottomans
Mehmet I (r. 1413-1421)
After the defeat of the
Ottomans by the TurkoMongol/Tatar
Tamerlane, the
Ottoman Empire went
into a period of chaos
and civil war.
The disorder ended
with Mehmet I emerged
and restored Ottoman
power.
Mehmet II, The Conqueror
Mehmet I’s grandson
reorganized the structure of
both the state and military
and captured
Constantinople in 1453.
The city became the new
capital of the Ottomans
and Mehmet II assumed the
title of Kayser-I-Rum or
Roman Emperor
Attempt after his death to
take Rome failed
The Ottoman Capital -- Constantinople
in time it would become Istanbul
Golden Horn – 15c
The Fall of Constantinople: 1453
“Europeans” vs. Turks
The End of the Byzantine Empire
Hagia Sophia is “converted”
Hagia Sophia - interior
Siege of Constantinople, 1453
Ottoman Growth
With Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, the
Ottomans becomes the dominant power in the Eastern
Mediterranean.
Military and naval conquests help to expand empire as
well as trade
Growth also due to new trade and routes between
Europe and Asia.
Trade and military alliances with other “European”
powers
Selim I (r. 1512-1520)
Expanded the empire
dramatically with defeat
of Safavid Persia (Sunni
v. Shia)
Egypt and naval
presence in Red Sea
Competition emerges
between Ottomans and
Portuguese
Faith Mosque
Suleiman the Magnificent:
(1520-1566)
Suleiman’s Signature
Solomon
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566)
Expanded Ottoman rule by
first capturing Belgrade
Later captures the
territories of present-day
Hungary and much of
Central and Eastern Europe
Vienna to Baghdad
Kanun, the Lawgiver
Basis for later constitutions
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566)
Süleymaniye Mosque
Topkapi Palace
Shah, Sultan, Caesar
Mecca, Medina, Baghdad,
Cairo, and beyond
Sunni Turks
Safavid Empire was main foe
(Shiite) centered in Esfahan
(Iran)
Refinement v. Girth
Blue Mosque
Süleymaniye Mosque
Blue Mosque - interior
Sinan the Great. Mosque of Selim II (Edirne, Turkey), 1568-1575
4th Caliphate
Sinan the Great/ Ottoman Empire/ sultans/ caliphs
avlu/ ablution
fountains/arasta/
hamam (Turkish
Bath)/ numerous
annexes/ madrasa
(school)/ caravanserai
(inn)
fluted minarets/
stalactite corbels/ a
gilded copper finial/
dome supported by
pendentives and
squinches
Mehmet Aga. The Blue
Mosque (Istanbul), 16091616
Compare to Hagia Sofia
Sultan Ahmet I/ Mehmet
Aga/ Iznik tilework
muezzin/ muezzin mahfili/
imam/ minbar
Sultan’s loge/ kürsü (verses)
Topkapi Palace Model
The Actual Topkapi Palace
Topkapi Palace (Istanbul), 1459-1465
Ottoman Empire
Mehmet II/ a series of pavilions
viziers/ divan (couch)/ haram/ eunuchs/ Janissaries/
devşirme (taxes)
Left: The Circumcision
Pavilion of Topkapi Palace
Below: Ottoman royal
ceremonial caftan
Topkapi Harem
It’s Good to Be the Sultan!
Topkapi “Fruit Room”
Topkapi’s Great
Craftsmenship
Renovations
Dome of the Rock
Hagya Sophia
During the reign of
Suleiman the
Magnificent, the
exterior of the Dome of
the Rock was covered
with Iznik tiles.
Ottoman Expansion
Under Selim and Suleiman, the empire became a
dominant naval force, controlling much of the
Mediterranean Sea.
The exploits of the Ottoman admiral, Barbarossa
Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Turkish
Navy during Suleiman's reign, led to a number of
military victories over Christian navies.
Among these were the conquest of Tunis and
Algeria from Spain and the evacuation of Muslims
and Jews from Spain to the safety of Ottoman
lands during the Spanish Inquisition
Ottoman Empire and Europe
The last conquest occurred on behalf of France as a joint
venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and
those of the Ottoman admiral Barbarossa.
France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition
to Habsburg rule in southern and central Europe, became
strong allies during this period.
The alliance was economic as well as military, as the sultans
granted France the right of trade within the empire without
levy of taxation.
In fact, the Ottoman Empire was by this time a significant and
accepted part of the European political sphere, and entered
into a military alliance with France, England and the
Netherlands against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg
Austria.
Ottomans and Western
Europe
As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by
the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the Persian
Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands.
With the Ottomans blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European
powers were driven to find another way to the ancient silk and spice routes,
now under Ottoman control.
On land, the empire was preoccupied by military campaigns in the Austria
and Persia, two widely-separated theaters of war.
The strain of these conflicts on the empire's resources, and the logistics of
maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances,
ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful.
The overriding military need for defense on the western and eastern frontiers
of the empire eventually made effective long-term engagement on a global
scale impossible.
The Ottoman Bureaucracy
SULTAN
Divans
Heads of
Individual
Religious Millets
Social / Military
Divans
Local Administrators
& Military
Landowners /
Tax Collectors
Muslims
Jews
Christians
Ottoman Society
Few conflicts with
Christians
Rival Muslim groups had
claims to dynastic rule
Multiethnic army
Recruited Christian
children for army
(devsirme)
Bureaucracy
Arabic and Ottoman
languages
Created a separate class
with allegiance to sultan
Education
Palace schools and
governors or janissaries
Janissaries
Janissaries
“Recruited” from Balkans and beyond with allegiance
to sultan
Elite, military machines
Precision and discipline
Uniforms and military band
Feared throughout Europe
Move west not east. Why?
Calligraphy
Prayer Rug,
16c Ottoman Empire
Illuminated Qur’an Page
Illuminated Qur’an Page
Collection of Taxes in
Suleiman’s Court
Human
Images?
Conversations Between Muslims &
Christians
Scholars at the Galata Observatory
(Suleiman’s Constantinople), 1557
Battle of Lepanto (1571)
Habsburg Alliance v. Ottomans
Fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic maritime states, decisively
defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire in five hours of fighting on
the northern edge off western Greece….Impact?
The Ottoman Empire Trade Routes
The Decline of the Empire: 18c
Ottoman Decline
Some historians support the idea the Ottoman defeat at
the Battle of Lepanto (1570) gave the Holy League
temporary control over the Mediterranean, protected
Rome from invasion, and prevented the Ottomans from
advancing any more into Europe.
The Jelali revolts (1519–1610) and Janissary revolts (1622)
caused widespread lawlessness and rebellion in Anatolia
in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, and toppled
several governments.
However, the 17th century was not simply an era of
stagnation and decline, but also a key period in which the
Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new
pressures and new realities, internal and external but a
little too late.
Ottoman Decline
During the stagnation period much territory in the
Balkans was ceded to Austria. Certain areas of the
empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became
independent in all but name, and subsequently
came under the influence of Britain and France.
The 18th century saw centralized authority giving
way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy
enjoyed by local governors and leaders.
A series of wars were fought between the Russian
and Ottoman empires from the 17th to the 19th
century.
Ottoman Decline
Educational and
Technological Reforms
were unsuccessful
Fortified Walls not
enough
Military Reforms too late
Ethnic Autonomy leads to
ethnic nationalism
Islamic philosophy,
mathematics, and
Chinese technology were
not enough
Walls to keep out invaders
from European nations
not able to sustain new
techonologies
Janissary revolt and
subsequent massacres
Ottoman Empire (1299-1922)
The period of Ottoman
decline is typically
characterized by historians also
as an era of modern times.
The empire lost territory on
all fronts, and there was
administrative instability
because of the breakdown of
the centralized government.
European styles and
innovations will reshape the
Ottomans
1450-1750
The Persian Empire
The Saffavid Dynasty hailed from the region of
Azerbaijan.
The Saffavid Shah Ismail I overthrew the White Sheep
(Akkoyunlu) Turkish rulers of Persia to found a new
native Persian empire.
Ismail expanded Persia to include all of present-day
Azerbaijan, Iran, and Iraq, plus much of Afghanistan
and Pakistan.
Shah Ismail I (r. 1502-1524)
Shah of Iran and the
founder of the Safavid
Dynasty which survived until
1736
Isma'il started his campaign
in Azerbaijan in 1500 as the
leader of the Safaviyya, an
Twelver Shia militant
religious order and unified
all of Iran by 1509
Full conversion from Sunni
to Shia
The Persian Empire
Ismail's expansion was halted by the Ottoman Empire
at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514
War with the Ottomans became a fact of life in Safavid
Iran.
Sunni versus Shia Islam
Turk v. Persian?
The Persian Empire
Saffavid Persia was a violent and
chaotic state for the next seventy years,
but in 1588 Shah Abbas I of Saffavid
ascended to the throne and instituted a
cultural and political renaissance.
He moved his capital to Isfahan, which
quickly became one of the most
important cultural centers in the
Islamic world.
He made peace with the Ottomans. He
reformed the army, drove the Uzbeks
out of Iran and into modern-day
Uzbekistan, and (with English help)
recaptured the island of Hormuz from
the Portuguese.
Shah Abbas I (The Great)
r. 1587-1629
Abbas came to the throne during a troubled time for
Iran.
Under his weak-willed father, who killed Abbas' mother
and elder brother.
Meanwhile, Iran's enemies, the Ottoman Empire and
the Uzbeks, exploited this political chaos to seize
territory for themselves.
In 1587, a coup overthrew his father, Shah Mohammed,
and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne
Abbas was no puppet and soon seized power for himself
and reformed the army, enabling him to fight the
Ottomans and Uzbeks and reconquer Iran's lost
provinces
Also took back land from the Portuguese and the
Mughals
Abbas was a great builder and moved his kingdom's
capital from Qazvin to Isfahan. In his later years, the
shah became suspicious of his own sons and had them
killed or blinded.
Isfahan”City of Mosques”
Shah Abbas I (the Great)/ Shi’a
Safavid Dynasty/ Isfahan/ iwans (vaulted hall or space)
Chahar Bagh/
Maiden (park
or square)/
bulbous
domes/ cool
interior
Maidan
Iwan
Muqarnas (stalactite vault)/
haft-rangi (seven colors) tiles
Mihrab from the Madrasa
Imami (Isfahan, Iran),
c. 1354,
glazed mosaic tilework
The Persian Empire
The Safavids were followers of Shi'a Islam, and
under them Persia (Iran) became the largest Shi'a
country in the Muslim world, a position Iran still
holds today.
Under the Safavids, Persia enjoyed its last period as
a major imperial power.
In 1639, a final border was agreed upon with the
Ottoman Empire which delineates the border
between the Republic of Turkey and Iran and also
that of between Iraq and Iran, today.
Persia and Europe 1722-1914
Throughout the Middle Ages, the natural philosophy and mathematics of
ancient Greeks were furthered and preserved within the Muslim world.
During this period, Persia became a centre for the manufacture of scientific
instruments, retaining its reputation for quality well into the 19th century.
In 1722, the Safavid state collapsed. That year saw the first European invasion
of Persia since the time of Heraclius: Peter the Great, Emperor of Imperial
Russia, invaded from the northwest as part of a bid to dominate central Asia.
Ottoman forces accompanied the Russians, successfully laying siege to
Isfahan.
The Russians conquered the city of Baku and its surroundings. The Turks
also gained territory. However, the Safavids were severely weakened, and that
same year (1722), the Afghans launched a bloody battle in response to the
Safavids' attempts on trying to forcefully convert them from Sunni to Shi'a
sect of Islam. The last Safavid shah was executed, and the dynasty came to an
end.
The Persian Empire
Persia found relative stability in the Qajar dynasty, ruling from 1779 to
1925, but lost hope to compete with the new industrial powers of
Europe
Persia found itself sandwiched between the growing Russian Empire
in Central Asia and the expanding British Empire in India.
Each carved out pieces from the Persian empire that became Bahrain,
Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Armenia, Georgia and Uzbekistan,
amongst other previous provinces.
Although Persia was never directly invaded, it gradually became
economically dependent on Europe. The Anglo-Russian Convention
of 1907 formalized Russian and British control over the north and
south of the country, respectively, where Britain and Russia each
created a "sphere of influence.”
1450-1750
Babur r. 1526-1530
Akbar r. 1556-1605
Auranwzeb r. 16581707
Mughal Empire 1526-1857
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was an imperial power which
ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from the early
16th to the mid-19th centuries.
At the height of its power, around 1700, it controlled
most of the subcontinent and parts of what is now
Afghanistan.
Mughal means Mongol in Arabic
Early Mughal History
Established around 1504 by Timurid prince,
Babur, descendent of Ghenghis Khan and
great-grandson of Timur or Tamerlane
In 1526, Babur defeated last of the Delhi
Sultans to secure his new kingdom using
artillery and horse-mounted archers
Babur’s descendents will go onto to rule the
subcontinent for next several hundred years
Babur (r. 1526-1530)
Muslim emperor from Central
Asia [Uzbek] but cultural lineage
was Persian
Drew on support from Turkic
and Persian peoples with very
diverse multiethnic army
Was helped by many to
overthrow Ibrahim Lodh, the last
Delhi Sultanate, who was
despised by many
Mongol Traditions
As the Mongols had done elsewhere, the Mughals
adopted Islam and the Persian culture
The first Mughal King, Babur, established the
Mughal Dynasty in regions spanning parts of
present-day Pakistan and India
Upon invading the region, the Mughals intermarried with local royalty and formed a TurkoPersian and Mongol Dynasty
Religious tolerance
Mughal Traditions
The language of the court was Farsi and the
language spoken was Urdu
Akbar instituted non-Muslim tax but abandoned
the Muslim lunar calendar in favor of a solar
calendar
Under the Mughals religious toleration was
hallmark
Only one of the Mughal emperors, Aurangzeb,
Shah Jahan’s son, would utilize state persecution of
non-Muslims
Akbar (r. 1556-1605)
Akbar the Great was only
13 when he became
emperor
Many military victories and
expansion of empire
Tolerant attitude towards
other religions discussions
of faith was common
Secular emperor
Agra Fort
The great Mughals
Babur, Hamayun,
Akbar, Jehangir, Shah
Jahan, and Aurangzeb
all ruled from Agra
Walled palatial city or
“town of victory”
Aga Mirak (?). Laila and
Majnun at School, 1524-1525,
miniature from a manuscript
a mullah and his students/
setting accommodates the
rules of arabesque design/
use of outline to emphasize a
flat 2-D design/ space
suggested by placement of
figures and objects on the
picture plane
Abd allah Musawwir.
The Meeting of the
Theologians, c. 1540-49,
miniature from a
manuscript
secular art/ a beggar
outside of a mosque/
profusion of patterns
Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658)
Persian word meaning “King
of the World”
Golden Age of the Mughals
Architecture
Threats from Deccan, Bengal,
and Northweset
Centralized court and artwork
used to express state ideology
House arrest under son,
Aurangzeb
Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658)
Shah Jahan probably left his
greatest legacy by his
building projects and palace
renovations
Taj Mahal, Red Fort,
Shalimar Gardens
Peacock Throne, now located
in Iran
Patron of fine arts
Romance and serenity
Taj Mahal (Agra,
India), 1632-1654
Muhgal (Mongol)
Shah Jahan and
Mumtaz Mahal/
architectural metaphor
for paradise and the
Throne of God/
mausoleum with
minarets/ reflecting
pool/ symmetrical
balance/ a planned
black mausoleum for
Shah Jahan
Aurangzeb (r.1658-1707)
Alamgir I aka Conqueror of the
Universe
Murdered brother, imprisoned
father, and abandoned religious
tolerance of predecessors
Sunni Fundamentalist
Sharia Law
Destruction of Hindu and Sikh
Temples*
Reintroduction of Non-Muslim
taxes
Aurangzeb (r.1658-1707)
Expansion of Empire but continuous
wars helped to drain resources
Religious intolerance and lack of
economic and political leadership
will begin the decline of the Mughal
Dynasty
Successors of Aurangzeb will be
unable to maintain the wars and the
economic links to keep the Mughals
viable
Islamic laws and wars against Hindus
and Sikhs helped to unify these
groups against the Muslim Mughals
Aurangzeb
Many mosques were
built in the lands of the
Northwest in what is
now Pakistan
Some historians believe
the tenure of
Aurangzeb was the
beginning of the end
for Mughal rule in the
subcontinent
Why?
Mughal Empire
Most notable of Babur’s
descendents were Akbar,
his grandson and Shah
Jahan, Akbar’s grandson
One of the most recognized
buildings in the world was
commissioned by Shah
Jahan
The Taj Mahal in Agra as a
tomb for his wife
Mughal Golden Age
The classic period of the Empire starts with the
accession of Akbar the Great in 1556 and ends
with the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, although
the Empire continued for another 150 years.
During this period, the Mughal Empire was
marked by a highly centralized administration
connecting the different regions of India. All
the significant monuments of the Mughals,
date to this period.
Mughal Decline
Most decisively the series of wars against the Pashtuns in
Afghanistan weakened the very foundation upon which Mughal
military rested.
The Pashtuns formed the backbone of the Mughal army and were
some of the most hardened troops and seriously undermined the
Mughal miltary apparatus when they resisted changes in tax and
administrative systems.
The powers of Europe were challenging themselves to the game of
who could conquer these foreign lands and exploit their riches
and wealth for their own personal gain.
The Mughal throne auctioned its agricultural crown lands to the
Dutch or the British for revenue extraction and the end was near.
Mughal Dynasty Ends
Abu Zafar Sirajuddin
Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar
was the last of the Mughal
emperors in India, as well as the
last ruler of the Timurid Dynasty.
He was the son of Akbar Shah II
by his Hindu wife Lalbai. He
became the Mughal Emperor
upon his father's death on
September 28, 1838 and was later
exiled by the British to Rangoon
(Yangoon) in 1858