Ancient Rome:
An Enduring World Empire
THE FOUNDING OF ROME
The Latinas, an Indo-European-speaking Italic people from
Central Europe, crossed the Alps about 1500 B.C. and invaded Italy.
Attracted by the warm climate and fertile land, the Latins conquered
the native peoples and settled in central Italy. On the seven hills
overlooking the Tiber River, they founded the city of Rome.
(According to Roman legend, the city was founded in 735 B.C. by two
descendants of the gods—the twin brothers Romulus and Remus.)
Life among the early Latinas
The early Latinas, a simple and hardy people, (1) worked chiefly
at farming and cattle-raising; (2) maintained close family ties, with the father exercising absolute
authority; (3) worshipped tribal gods and (4) defended Rome against frequent attacks.
ROME: FROM ETRUSCAN RULE TO INDEPENDENCE (750-500 B.C.)
Rome was captured about 750 B.C. by its northern neighbors, the Etruscans. From these more
advanced people, the Latinas, or Romans, learned to (1) construct buildings, roads, and city walls, (2)
make metal weapons, and (3) apply new military tactics. The Romans in 500 B.C. Drove out the
Etruscans and established an independent republic.
THE EARY REPUBLIC: AN ARISTOCRACY
The Roman Republic at first was an aristocracy, with power in the hands of the wealthy
landowning nobles, the patricians. Only they could serve (1) as consuls (heads of state) and (2) as
members of the hereditary Senate, which passed laws, approved appointments, and controlled foreign
affairs. Largely excluded from government were the rest of the Roman people, mainly small farmers and
city workers, known as plebeians.
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC BECOMES MORE DEMOCRATIC (5TH-3RD CENTURIES B.C.)
The plebeians clamored for democratic reforms. Over the course of two centuries, they gained the right
to (1) elect tribunes empowered to veto (forbid) actions of the consuls and the Senate, (2) enact laws in
the people’s assemblies, and (3) hold all government offices, including those of consul and senator.
The plebeians’ demands also resulted in codification (arranging and writing down) of Roman law
into the Twelve Tables. This prevented judges—who were nobles—from twisting unwritten laws to favor
their own class.
The Romans achieved these reforms rather harmoniously, because both the patricians and the
plebeian willingly compromised their differences for the good of the Republic. (Later, when willingness
to compromise disappeared, civil wars destroyed the Republic.)
ROME GAINS CONTROL OF ITALY (340-260 B.C.)
In a series of wars Rome conquered the Italian peninsula. The Romans (1) in central Italy,
overwhelmed the other Latinas as well as the Samnites and Etruscans,(2) in northern Italy, drove back
the Gauls, and (3) in southern Italy, captured the Greek colonies. (See map, page 57.) Rome succeeded
in conquering and uniting Italy because of its:
1. Powerful Armies Roman citizen-soldiers felt deeply responsible to their Republic. They fought
not for a despot but for their own freedom, land, and government. Well-trained and strictly
disciplined, the Roman legions were the ancient world’s most effective fighting force.
2. Ability to Move troops. The Apennine Mountains, running north and south through Italy, did not
obstruct Roman troop movements appreciably.
3. Wise Treatment of Conquered peoples. The Romans secured the friendship and allegiance of
the conquered peoples by granting them the privileges of either partial of full Roman
citizenship. From these allies Rome received troops and support for its foreign policy.
ROME CONQUERS THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN (264-146 B.C.)
After subjugating the Greek colonies in southern Italy, Rome sought to control western
Mediterranean trade. Its chief rival, located across the Mediterranean in northern Africa, was the citystate of Carthage. Originally a Phoenician colony, Carthage had become a powerful commercial empire.
Rome defeated Carthage in three Punic (Phoenician) Wars and gained mastery of the western
Mediterranean.
1. The First Punic War (264-240 B.C.E). Fighting chiefly on the island of Sicily and in the
Mediterranean Sea. Rome’s citizen-soldiers eventually defeated Carthage’s mercenaries (hired
foreign soldiers). Rome annexed Sicily and the Sadinia and Corsica. Both sides prepared to
renew the struggle. Carthage acquired part of Spain and recruited Spanish troops. Rome
consolidated its position in Italy by conquering the Gauls, thereby extending its rule northward
from the Po River to the Alps.
2. The Second Punic War (218-201B.C.). Hannibal, Carthage’s great general, led an army from
Spain across the Alps and into Italy. At first he won numerous victories, climaxed by the Battle
of Cannae .However, he was unable to seize the city of Rome. Gradually the tide of battle turned
in favor of Rome. The Romans destroyed a Carthaginian army sent to reinforce Hannibal, then
conquered Spain, and finally invaded North Africa,]. Hannibal withdrew his army from Italy to
defend Carthage but, in the Battle of Zama was a last defeated. Rome annexed Cartage’s
Spanish provinces and reduced Carthage to a second-rate power.
Reasons for Rome’s victory (a) superior wealth and military power,(b) the loyalty of most
of its allies, and(c) the rise of capable generals, notably Fabius and Scipio. Fabius was called the
Delayer because he did not commit the Troops to decisive battle in Italy. Believing that time
would help Rome, he merely harassed the enemy. Scipio was named Africanus because he
triumphed over Hannibal in North Africa.
3. The Third Punic War (149-146B.C.). Some Romans believed that Carthage remained a threat.
Cato, a Romans Senator, ended his speeches, regardless of subject, with the statement
“Carthage must b destroyed.” Rome finally attacked Carthage, destroyed the city, and annexed
the territory.
ROME CONQUERS THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
(BY THE 1ST CENTURY B.C.)
AFTER THE Second Punic War, Rome conquered (1) Macedonia, including Greece, and (2) Syria,
including most of southwestern Asia. Egypt, recognizing Rome’s might, submitted to Roman
domination of the eastern Mediterranean. In 30 B.C.E Rome annexed Egypt. Rome was now master
of the entire Mediterranean world.
THE MEDITERRANEAN CONQUESTS AFFECT ROME
1. Conquests Introduce Greek Culture. The Romans enthusiastically accepted the advanced
Hellenistic culture of the eastern Mediterranean. They (a) shipped Greek treasures—books,
statues, and vases—to Rome, (b) enslaved educated Greeks to serve as tutors, actors, writers,
and scientists, and (c) imitated Greek culture extensively. Roman arms conquered Greece, but
Greek culture conquered Rome.
2. Conquests Bring Wealth to some Romans. (a) Nobles cheaply acquired huge estates in the
provinces and in Italy. They often seized public lands illegally. (b) Merchants and business people
prospered by filling army contracts, buying booty, supplying slaves, and trading with the
provinces. (c) Government officials in the provinces amassed huge fortunes at the expense of
their subject peoples.
These wealthy classes enjoyed lives of ease and luxury. Hard work, discipline, and
patriotism—early roman virtues—disappeared.
3. Conquests Ruin Small Farmers and Workers. Small farmers and city workers could not compete
with slave labor employed by huge estates and in industry. Unable to pay their debts, farmers
abandoned their lands and migrated to the cities; city workers suffered serious unemployment.
To gain the support of landless farmers and unemployed workers, Roman politicians
sponsored free government programs of bread and circuses (food and entertainment).
4. Conquests Change the Character of the Army. The small farmer had been the backbone of the
Roman army. As he disappeared, the nature of the army changed. Citizen-soldiers, loyal to the
state, were replaced by professional soldiers, fighting for pay and booty, loyal to their own
commanders.
FROM REPUBLIC TO DICTATORSHIP
By the 2nd century B.C. the common people were again demanding economic and political
reforms. The aristocracy, controlling the Senate, bitterly opposed measures that threatened their
wealth and power. Since the spirit of compromise of the early Republic was dead, peaceful reform
failed. In a series of civil wars, rival Roman generals battled for supremacy. The entire conflict,
lasting more than 100 years, wrecked the Romans Republic and its many democratic features. In 27
B.C. the Republic was replaced by an absolute monarchy, the Roman Empire.
1. The Gracchi Brothers vainly seek Peaceful Reform (133-121B.C.). First, Tiberius Gracchus and,
later, Gaius Gracchus, nobles favoring the common people, were elected tribunes. The Gracchi
obtained law in the people’s assembly that would (a) recover public lands wrongfully seized by
the nobles and (b) distribute these lands to landless Romans. Gaius further proposed to weaken
the stronghold of aristocratic power, the senate. Both brothers were killed in riots led by
senatorial opponents of reform.
2. Civil War: Marius vs. Sulla. Beginning in 88B.C. two generals –Marius, the popular leader, and
Sulla, the senatorial leader—vied for control of Rome. Their clashes killed thousands of soldiers
and civilians. Sulla prevailed and temporarily restored senatorial power.
3. Civil war: Caesar vs. Pompey. In 60B.C. three men—Julius Caesar, a popular leader; Pompey, a
famous general; and Crassus, a wealthy noble—formed the First Triumvirate. This political
alliance enabled the three men to dominate Rome. Caesar became a general and, Through
military victories in Gaul (France), won his army’s loyalty. Caesar spread his fame by his book,
Commentaries on the Gallic War.
In 49B.C. the Senate, fearing Caesar’; popularity and power, ordered him to disband his army.
Caesar refused and, taking an irrevocable step, crossed the Rubicon River and invaded the senatorial
portion of Italy. Caesar defeated Pompey’s senatorial army and became dictator of Rome.
A farsighted leader, Caesar planned to establish stable government, reform provincial rule,
provide land for the poor, and beautify the city of Rome. But he lacked time. In 44B.C. a group of
conspirators, some envying his power and others hoping to restore the Republic, assassinated Caesar.
4. Civil War: Octavian vs. Antony. After Caesar’s death, civil war again corrupted. The Army of
Brutus and Cassius, the chief conspirators, was defeated by forces led by Caesar’s friend, Mark
Antony, and Caesar’s grandnephew, Octavian. In the final conflict for power, Octavian defeated
Antony at the naval Battle of Actium (31 B.C.E). This battle off the Greek coast ended the era of
civil wars. Octavian then became absolute ruler of the Roman Empire.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE: A DICTATORSHIP (27 B.C.-47 A.D.)
The Romans Empire, existing about 500 years, was a military dictatorship. Of
the many Roman emperors, some dominated the army; others were its puppets.
Some devoted themselves to the Empire’s welfare; others sought personal
advantages. However, only a few were qualified to meet imperial problems.
The outstanding Raman emperors were:
1. Augustus (27 B.C. -14A.D.). From the Senate Octavian accepted the title
Augustus, meaning “Sacred Majesty.” Just and capable, Augustus (a) maintained peace, (b)
provided stable government, (c) reformed provincial administration, (d) established fair
taxation, (e) developed trade and industry, (f) encouraged science, art, and literature, and (g)
constructed many roads and buildings. Augustus boasted, according to legend, that he
transformed Rome from a city of brick into a city of marble.
During Augustus’ reign Jesus was born in the roman province of Judea.
The Augustan Age began a 200-year period of peace and progress in the Mediterranean world
(Pax Romania).
2. Claudius (41-54A.D.) established Roman authority in the southern part of Britain. In Italy he
promoted public works.
3. Vespasian (69-79 A.D.) dispatched an army, led by his son Titus, to Palestine. Titus suppressed a
Hebrew revolt, destroyed Jerusalem, and expelled most Jews from Palestine.
4. Trajan (98-117A.D.), through conquest, expanded the Empire to its greatest territorial extent.
(See map, page 58.) His most important acquisition was Dacia (modern Rumania).
5. Hadrian (117-138A.D), to repel barbarian tribes seeking to enter the Empire, built defensive
walls in southern Britain and central Europe.
6. Marcus Aurelius (161-180A.D.) was a conscientious and high-minded ruler concerned with the
people’s welfare. He was also a Stoic philosopher who wrote the famous book, Meditations. His
death marked the end of the Pax Romania
7. Diocletian (284-3050A.D.) became emperor after a period of incompetent rule and internal
strife. To simplify government, he divided the Empire into East and West—each portion
administered separately. To prevent civil war, he established a system of succession to the
throne. Nevertheless, his death led to renewed civil wars.
Diocletian was the last Roman emperor who actively persecuted Christians
8. Constantine (312-337A.D.0 reunited the Empire by military force and moved his capital from
Rome to Constantinople (formerly Byzantine). By the Edict of Milan
(313A.D.), he ended the persecution of Christians. Just before his death,
Constantine himself was converted to Christianity.
BARBARIC TRIBES DESTROY THE ROMAN EMPIRE
1. Germanic (Teutonic) Tribes Exert Pressure (1st-4th Centuries A.D.).
Germanic. Or Teutonic, tribes-primitive, warlike peoples—lived in central and eastern Europe.
They were attracted to the Roman Empire by its fertile land, great wealth, and advanced
civilization.
Early Germanic efforts to enter the Empire were thwarted by Roman troops. Later,
Rome permitted some Germanic people to settle within its borders and enlisted Germanic
soldiers in its armies.
2. The Huns Invade Europe (4th and 5th Centuries A.D.). The Huns, savage invaders from central
Asia, terrorized Europe, causing many Germanic tribes to flee into the Roman Empire. Attila, the
“Scourge of God,” later led the Huns in ravaging the Empire until turned back by a combined
Roman-Germanic force at the Battle of Chalons(451A.D.). The Huns, nevertheless, had
weakened Rome militarily and hastened its downfall.
3. The Germanic tribes End the Roman Empire (4th and 5th Centuries A.D.). The full-scale
Germanic migrations into roman territory could not be stemmed by the enfeebled Roman
government. Gradually the Germanic tribes established kingdoms within the Empire: the
Visigoths in Spain, the Ostrogoths in Italy, and the Vandals in North Africa, the Franks in Gaul,
and the Angles and Saxons in Britain. In 476 A.D. Germanic mercenaries overthrew the last
emperor in Rome. This event, according to most historians, ended the Western Roman Empire.
REASONS FOR THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Why couldn’t the Germanic tribes crush Rome, so long the master of the Mediterranean world?
The answer lies not in Germanic strength but in Roman weakness. By the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. the
Roman Empire had declined because of the following internal conditions:
1. Political. (a) The dictatorial government was frequently inefficient and corrupt and did not
command the people’s loyalty. (b) The Vast Empire, having primitive transportation and
communication, could not be governed efficiently from one central city. (c) Rivalry over
succession to the throne often resulted in destructive civil wars.
2. Economic. (a) Small farmers had abandoned their lands, and many had become workers on
large estates. No longer independent, they lost the incentive to improve farming methods or to
increase production. (b) The self-sufficiency of the large estates hampered trade and curtailed
industry, thus causing an economic decline. (c)Heavy, often unjust, taxation burdened the
people and destroyed their ambition to work and progress. (d) The widespread use of slaves in
industry and agriculture caused great unemployment among the plebeians.
3. Social. (a) People were interested mainly in luxury and survival. The early Roman ideals of
patriotism, service, and morality had almost vanished. (b) Sharp class distinctions existed. The
upper classes were wealthy and educated; the lower classed were poor and ignorant. Cites—
previously centers of culture and industry—declined as people flees to the rural regions.
4. Military. (a) The warlike spirit of early pagan Rome was weakened by Christian teachings of
peace and universal love. (b) The Roman armies included many Germanic mercenaries of
uncertain loyalty. (c) The armies, considering themselves masters of the state, not its servants,
often chose the emperors and determined government policy.
ROMAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO CIVILIZATION
1. Pax Romania (27B.C.-180A.D.). For 200 years Roman military might enforced in the
Mediterranean world the Pax Romania, or “ Roman peace.” This was a period of social cohesion
on an international scale. Trade and commerce expanded; the arts and sciences thrived’ GrecoRoman, or classical, civilization reached everywhere in the Empire. The achievement under the
Pax Romania proved that peace means progress.
2. Roman Law. The Romans developed bodies of law on business matters, family relationships,
individual rights, and international
affairs, Justinian, Roman emperor at
Constantinople (527-565A.D.), directed
jurists to codify these laws. The
Justinian Code influenced the legal
systems of western Europe and less
directly, the United States.Roman law
was intended to be impartial and
humane. Two of its principles were (a)
All persons are equal before the law.
(b) Accused persons are guaranteed
legal protection. For example, forced
confessions are invalid.
3. Architecture. The Romans constructed military roads, aqueducts, bridges, and marble
buildings—some still in use. Roman architects effectively employed the arch, dome, and column.
During the reign of Emperor Vespasian, the Romans erected the famous stone amphitheater,
the Coliseum. In its arena gladiators and wild beasts battled to entertain spectators.
4. Language. Latin, the Roman language, is (a)
the root of the Romance (or Romanic)
languages: French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
and Rumanian and (b) the source of about onehalf of the words in the English language.
4. Literature
a. Cicero (106-43B.C.), an orator and writer, is known as the “father of Latin prose.” He
wrote extensively on ethical, religious, and political subjects, and delivered famous
orations in defense of the Roman Republic.
b. Vergil (70-19B.C.) wrote the famous epic poem, the Aeneid. In relating the
adventures of Aeneas, whose descendants supposedly founded Rome, Vergil
extolled Rome’s Greatness.
c. Horace (65-8B.C.) wrote Odes, charming poetry about everyday life. A moralist, he
praised the early Roman virtues of simplicity, courage, and reverence.
d. Seneca (3B.C.-65 A.D., Stoic philosopher, wrote essays on morals.
5. Historical Writing
a. Livy (59B.C.-17A.D.) wrote an encyclopedic history—only part of which has survived –of
Rome from its founding to the Augustan Age. Livy deplored the decay of the early
roman virtues and the fall of the Republic.
b. Plutarch (100A.D.) compared Roman and Greek Heroes in his book of biographies,
Parallel Lives.
c. Tacitus (55-120A.D.), in his work Germania, vividly described life among the Germanic
barbarians.
6. Science. The Romans were practical scientists, specializing in sanitation, public health, and
engineering. The research scientists of the Empire were generally non-Romans.
a. Galen (131-201A.D.), a reek physician, wrote books summarizing the ancient world’s
medical knowledge. He also performed experiments involving the nervous and
circulatory systems.
b. Ptolemy (2nd century A.D.), a Greek astronomer, taught-erroneously as we now know—
that (1) the earth is the center of the universe and (2) the sun revolves about the earth.