Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms with the same
number of protons but differ in number of
neutrons; e.g., a carbon atom has six protons
but may have more or less than usual six
neutrons
 Valence Shell: Outer shell of an atom. Atoms
with few electrons in their valence shell tend
to have more free electrons since these
valence electrons are more loosely bound to
the nucleus.



Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds form when electrons are
transferred from one atom to another. Losing or
gaining electrons, atoms participating in ionic
reactions fill outer shells, and are more stable.
Covalent Bonds: Covalent bonds result when two
atoms share electrons so each atom has octet of
electrons in the outer shell. . Structural formulas
represent shared atom as a line between two atoms;
e.g., single covalent bond (H-H), double covalent
bond (O=O)Three dimensional shape of molecules is
not represented by structural formulas but shape is
critical in understanding the biological action of
molecules: action of insulin, HIV receptors, etc.

Hydrogen Bond forms between…
› slightly positive hydrogen atom of one
molecule and slightly negative atom in
another or the same molecule.

pH is a measure of…
› How acidic or basic a solution is.
 Acidic Solution has more H+ ions
 Basic Solution has more –OH ions

Buffer is
› keep pH steady and within normal limits in
living organisms..

Isomer is…
› Are molecules or molecular compounds that
are similar in that they have the same
molecular formula, however have different
arrangements of the atoms or groups of
atoms (functional groups) involved.
› Example: Fructose and glucose (C6H12O6) –
same molecular formula but different
arrangements
› -OH –
› C=O
› -COOH
› -NH2
› -SH
› -OPO3
Hydroxyl
Carbonyl
Carboxyl
Amino group
Sulfhydryl group
Phosphate group
 Hydrolysis
Reaction
› Reaction that breaks down compounds by the addition of H2O
 Dehydration
synthesis reaction
› Reaction in which two compounds are brought together with H2O
released as a product
 Endergonic
reaction
› A reaction that requires the input of energy to occur
 A+B+energy C
 Exergonic
reaction
› A reaction that gives off energy as a product
 A+BEnergy +C
 Redox
reaction
› A reaction involving the transfer of electrongs
General formula for monosaccharides
are CnH2nOn
 Example: C6H12O6 (Glucose)
 Simple Sugar

› Function: Sugar found in Nucleic Acid
› Glucose: Sugar for the body
› ATP: Cell Energy
Polysaccharides: Carbohydrate containing 3
or more monosaccharides
 Storage form of energy
 Structural material in and around cells
 Difference between

› Glycogen: Glucose molecules linked together
(animal energy storage)
› Starch: Glucose linked together (Plants energy
storage)
› Cellulose: composed of glucose molecules –
formation of cell walls
› Chitin: Glucose molecules joined togetherArthopods exoskeleton

Structural Components of the following…
› Fats: Lipids made by combining glycerol and
three fatty acids. Used as long-term energy
stores in cells
› Phospholipids: is a lipid formed by combining a
glycerol molecule with two fatty acids and a
phosphate group; bilayered structure –
component in cell membrane
› Steroids: are lipids composed of four carbon
rings that look like chicken wire.
 Examples: Cholesterol, sex hormones
Cholesterol
Testosterone 

Protein Chains:
› Primary Structure: Sequence of amino acids to
form a polypeptide chain (protein)
› Secondary Structure: 3-D arrangement of a
protein caused by hydrogen bonding at regular
intervals along the polypeptide backbone
› Tertiary Structure: 3-D arrangement of protein
caused by interactions among the various R
groups of the amino acids involved.
› Quaternary structure: The arrangement of
separate polypeptide “subunits” into a single
protein

Enzymes are proteins that act as organic
catalyst (speed up reaction by lowering
the energy (activation energy) needed for
the reaction to take place but are not used
up in the reaction.
Induced-fit model: of enzyme-substrate
interaction describes the active site of an
enzyme as specific for a particular substrate
that fits its shape.
 Allosteric enzyme: An allosteric enzyme is an
enzyme that contains a region to which small,
regulatory molecules ("effectors") may bind in
addition to and separate from the substrate
binding site and thereby affect the catalytic
activity. On binding the effector, the catalytic
activity of the enzyme towards the substrate
may be enhanced, in which case the effector
is an activator, or reduced, in which case it is
a de-activator or inhibitor


Four ways enzymes can be affected:
› Temperature
› pH
› Concentration of the substrate
› Concentration of the enzyme involved

Prokaryotic: Simple cell
› No nucleus
 Nucleoid : Genetic material
› No membrane bond organelles

Eukaryotic is more complex
› Nucleus
› Membrane bound organelles









Ribosomes: protein synthesis
Smooth ER: lipids synthesis, detoxification, and
carbohydrate metabolism
Rough ER: Ribosome are attached – proteins are
produced
Golgi apparatus: proteins, lipids, and other
macromolecules sent to the Golgi to be modified by
the addition of sugars and other molecules to form
glycoproteins – products form vesicles
Mitochondria: powerhouse—ATP is made here
Lysosome: Digestion center
Nucleus: Control center, contains DNA (genetic
material)
Vacuole: Storage (Plants have a larger structure)
Chloroplast: Plants only – site for photosynthesis
Fluid Mosaic Model: the membrane consist
of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins of
various lengths and sizes interspersed with
cholesterol among the phospholipids.
 Two types of proteins in the cell membrane:

› Integral proteins: implanted within the bilayer
and can extend partway or all the way across
the membrane
› Peripheral proteins: such as receptor proteins,
which are not implanted in the bilayer and are
often attached to integral proteins of the
membrane

Difference between…
› Diffusion: movement of molecules down their
concentration gradient with the use of energy
(area of higher concentration to lower
concentration)
› Osmosis: movement of water down its
concentration gradient (passive diffusion). Going
from a higher water concentration to area of
lower water concentration
› Active Transport: is the movement of a particle
across a selectively permeable membrane against
the concentration gradient (Going from low to
high concentration)

Hyperosmotic (Hypertonic): moving of
water from a high solute in the
environment to area of low solute
concentration to environment. The water
will move out of the cell
60%
water
40%
solute
40% water
60% solute

Hypoosmotic (hypotonic): Is when the
solute concentration is more in the cell
than outside the cell. The water will
move in of the cell
40%
Water
60%
Solute
60% water
40% solute

Isosmotic (Isotonic): The solute and water
is on the same on both sides
50% solute
50% water
50% solute
50% water

Phases of Mitosis:
› Prophase: Nuclear envelope disappears,
chromatids appear, centrioles moves to
poles
› Metaphase: chromosomes move toward the
center –Spindle are attached to the
centromere
› Anaphase: Chromatids separate and move
toward the poles
› Telophase: Chromatids move toward each
poles, nuclear envelope reappears,
cytokinesis begins

Mitosis: is the dividing of body cells
› Daughter cells will have the exact number
chromosomes as the parent cells

Meiosis : is the dividing of sex cells
› Daughter cells will have half the number of
chromosomes as the parent cells

Cell cycle includes:
› Interphase: the stage that prepares the cell
for the cell division
› Mitosis: is the division of the nucleus
› Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm

This is the way in which the cell has a
type of check and balance system that
ensures the cell is correct
›
›
›
›

Checkpoints
Density-dependent inhibition
Growth Factors
Cyclin and Protein kinases
You may want to go back and look over
this information
Mitosis
Meiosis
Number of cells
2 diploid cells
4 haploid cells
Crossing over
No
Yes-Prophase I
Number of phases
1 (IPMATC)
2 (IPMATC & PMATC)
No Interphase in the
second phase
Types of cells
Body (Somatic) Cells
Sex (Gamete) Cells
Number of
chromosomes
Same number of
chromosomes as the
parent cell
Diploid
Different number of
chromosomes as the
parent cell
Haploid
Genetics
Genetically Identical to
the parent cell
Genetically different to
the parent cell

The difference between meiosis I and
meiosis II is that the cell does not go
through interphase (Chromsome
replication) during meiosis II. This will
allow the cells to have half the number
of chromsomes (haploid).

Crossing over is when the homologous
chromosomes match up during
prophase I of meiosis, complementary
pieces from the two homologous
chromosomes wrap around each other
and are exchanged between the
chromosomes.

Three parts to a nucleotide are…5 carbon
sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen base
› Serves as a puzzle piece to the nucleic acid
strand (RNA or DNA)
Adenine and guanine are purines
 Cytosine and Thymine are pyrimidine
 Base pairing states that Adenine will pair up
with thymine and Cytosine will pair up with
Guanine (Apple=Tart and Go=Cart)






DNA replication occurs during the S-phase
(interphase), semiconservative (which the one
strands serves a template)
Built in the 5’ to 3’ direction
DNA helicase will unzip the strand by breaking
the hydrogen bonds producing a replication
fork
Specific regions along DNA strand serve as
primer sites that signal where replication should
originate
DNA polymerase – enzyme superstar binds to
the primer site and adds nucleotides to the
growing DNA chain (will only add to the 3’ end)
The DNA polymerase only being used on the 3’
creates a problem which only allows the one
strand to add nucleotides this is known as the
leading strand.
 The other strand is known as the lagging strand
 The lagging strand consist of tiny pieces called
Okazaki fragments, which are later connected
by an enzyme called DNA ligase to produce the
completed double stranded DNA molecule
 RNA primer allows for the RNA strand to bind to
the DNA strand (this occurs during replication)

DNA can only stay in the nucleus so it
must send its instructions out to the cell.
This is done by the second nucleic acid
(RNA).
 Because DNA and RNA have very similar
language it allows it to be
accomplished.


Transcription: is the process of taking
DNA to a RNA strand (Occurs in the
nucleus)
› This is done by three steps:
 Initiation: When RNA polymerase attaches to
the promoter region of a DNA strand
 Elongation: a promoter region recognition site
that shows the polymerase where transcription
will begin. Once RNA polymerase works by
adding the appropriate RNA nucleotide to the
3’ of the growing strand
 Termination: tells the polymerase should
conclude
Translation: process by which the mRNA
specified sequence of amino acids is lined up
on a ribosome for protein synthesis (mRNA 
DNA)
 Each amino acid carries a specific
nucleotides/codes (codon)

› Start Codon: AUG
› Stop Codon: UAA, UAG, UGA

Anticodon is the complementary to the
codon (tRNA) that has been incorporated
into the growing protein

Define the following:
› Promoter: a base sequence that signals the start
site of genes transcription; this is where RNA
polymerase binds to the begin the process
› Operator: a short sequence near the promoter that
assists in transcription by interacting with regulatory
proteins
› Operon: promoter/operator pair that services
multiple genes
 Well known example is the lac operon
› Repressor: protein that prevents the binding of RNA
polymerase to the promoter site
› Enhancer: DNA region also known as “regulator”
that is located thousands of bases away frm the
promoter
› Inducer: a molecule that binds to and inactivates a
repressor

Structural Gene: one that specifies the
amino acid sequence of a polypeptide
chain

Energy is…
› The ability to do work

Entropy is the measure of amount of
energy that is not available for work

ATP power cellular work the energy
currency of cells (adenosine triphosphate)
Functions:
1. CHEMICAL WORK - Supplies energy
needed to make macromolecules that
make up the cell (and organism)
2. TRANSPORT WORK - Supplies energy
needed to pump substances across the cell
membrane
3. MECHANICAL WORK - supplies energy
needed to make muscles contract and
other cellular parts to move (flagella)

Glycolysis
› a) a ten-step process that occurs in the cytoplasm
b) converts each molecule of glucose to two
molecules of pyruvic acid (a 3-carbon molecule)
c) an anaerobic process - proceeds whether or
not O2 is present ; O2 is not required
d) net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule
e) net yield of 2 NADH per glucose (NADH is
nicotine adenine dinucleotide, a co-enzyme that
serves as a carrier for H+ ions liberated as glucose
is oxidized.)

Kreb Cycle –occurs in the mitochondria
› a) occurs in the inner mitochondrial matrix
b) the acetyl group detaches from the coenzyme A and enters the reaction cycle
c) an aerobic process; will proceed only in the
presence of O2
d) net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule (per 2
acetyl CoA)
e) net yield of 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 (FAD serves
the same purpose as NAD)
f) in this stage of cellular respiration, the oxidation
of glucose to CO2 is completed
› GO BACK AND LOOK AT YOUR CYCLE

Electron Transport System – occurs in the
mitochondria
› a) consists of a series of enzymes on the inner mitochondrial
membrane
b) electrons are released from NADH and from FADH2 and
as they are passed along the series of enzymes, they give
up energy which is used to fuel a process called
chemiosmosis by which H+ ions are actively transported
across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the outer
mitochondrial compartment. The H+ ions then flow back
through special pores in the membrane, a process that is
thought to drive the process of ATP synthesis.
c) net yield of 34 ATP per glucose molecule
d) 6 H2O are formed when the electrons unite with O2* at
the end of electron transport chain. [* Note: This is the
function of oxygen in living organisms!]
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm
 Kreb Cycle occurs in the mitochondria
 Electron Transport Chain occurs in the
mitochondria


Chemosismosis: electrons are released
from NADH and from FADH2 and as they
are passed along the series of enzymes,
they give up energy which is used to fuel
a process called chemiosmosis by which
H+ ions are actively transported across
the inner mitochondrial membrane into
the outer mitochondrial compartment.

Photophosphorylation: ATP a second
product made during the light reaction
Fermentation: an anaerobic respiration in
which glucose is broken down to pyruvate
during glycolysis. There is only a net gain of 2
ATP. There will be no Kreb Cycle or Electron
Transport Chain
 Two types of Fermentation:

› Lactic Acid Fermentation: The production of
lactic acid without oxygen
 Examples: Milk products and muscles being oxygen
deficient
› Alcohol Fermentation: The production of ethyl
alcohol and carbon dioxide
 Examples: Yeast (Bread and Alcoholic Beverages)

Two parts to photosynthesis are:
› Light (light dependent) reaction: Occurs in the
thylakoid membrane(contains chlorophyll)
 Inputs to the light reactions are water and light
 Products: ATP, NADPH, and O2
 Oxygen produced in the light reactions comes from H2O
and not CO2
› Light Independent Reaction (dark reaction): Occurs in
the stroma
 Inputs into the Calvin cycle are NADPH, ATP, and CO2
 More ATP is used than NADPH creating a need for cylic
photophosphorylation to create enough ATP for reaction
 The carbon of the sugar produced in photosynthesis
comes from the CO2 of the Calvin Cycle

Transpiration is the process of water
evaporating out of the leaves. When the
water goes out of the leaves the water
the other parts of plants replace the
water through the process known as the
Cohesion Tension Theory

Most photosynthesis takes place in the
mesophyll portion of the leaf
Aneuploidy: The fusing of an abnormal
gamete with a normal one can lead to the
production of offspring with an abnormal
number of chromosomes
 Polyploidy: a condition in which an
individual has more than the normal
number of sets of chromosomes
 Structural Alternations of chromosomes are
mutations. Chromosomal mutation which
include inversion, deletion, duplications,
translocation


What is the difference between linked
and unlinked genes?
› Linked Genes: group of genes on the same
chromosome
 If genes are close enough then there is a
higher probability of crossing over
› Unlinked Genes: Genes that are not on the
same chromosome
 Only together if the Law of Independent
Assortment (Mendel’s Law)
Restriction Enzyme are enzymes that cut DNA
at specific nucleotide sequence.
 Gel Electrophoresis is a technique used to
separate and examine DNA fragments. This is
when restriction enzymes are used and then
separated by electrophoresis. The pieces of
DNA are separated on the basis of size with
the help of an electric charge. This
technique can be used to sequence DNA
and determine the order in which the
nucleotide appear.


Gel Electrophoresis can be used in forensics.
This technique require the use of Restriction
fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). DNA is
specific of each individual and when it is
mixed with restriction enzyme, different
combination of RFLPs will be obtained from
person to person

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) can
be used during Gel Electrophoresis but
can also be used to sequence DNA
› PCR will amplify the gene to be studied
› PCR will allow scientist to study genetic
disorders and amplify trace amounts of DNA
found at crime scences.

Applications of DNA technology

Recombinant DNA: contains two or more different
sources
› Cloning: slow process by which a desired
sequence of DNA is copied numerous times
Gel Electrophoresis: technique used to
separate DNA according to size
(small=faster). DNA moves from: - to +
 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): produces
large quantities of sequence in short amount
of time

Mutations: Genetic Mistakes
 Three types of muations are:

› Gene Mutation: Substitutes one bases for another
 This can include insertion, deletion, and point
mutations
› Chromosomal Mutation: The entire chromosome is
messed up
 This includes inversion, duplication, translocation,
deletion
› Frameshift Mutation: either a base is added or
deleted which causes a change in the reading
frame

Three causes of mutation:
› Radiation : X-rays and gamma waves
› Viruses
› Random: Age is one example– if a woman
pregnant over 40 has a greater chance for
Down Syndrome

Difference between Viruses are protein
coat, shape (popcorn ball compare to
Apollo lunar lander), and Nucleic acid

Viral Reproduction
› Lytic cycle = reproduction occurs, cells burst
› Lysogenic cycle = reproduction does not
immediately occur (dormancy)

Hardy-Weinberg Conditions
› No mutations
› No gene flow (immigration or emigration)
› No genetic drift (populations must be kept
large)
› No natural selection (All organisms have the
ability to survive and reproduce)
› Random Mating

Hardy Weinberg equation
p2 + 2 pq + q2 = 1
p2
2pq
q2
Homozygous Dominant
Heterozygous Dominant
Homozygous Recessive
p. 144-145 – you may need to go back how
to answer Hardy-Weinberg equation

Prezygotic barriers:
› Behavioral Isolation: Different courtship rituals
› Temporal Isolation: Reproduces at different
times
› Mechanical Isolation: reproductive structures
that does not allow reproduction
› Gametic Mortality: Inability between sperm
and egg
› Ecological Isolation: potential mates that
can reproduce but are not in the same area

Postzygotic barriers: feterilization takes
place forming a hybrid

Allopatric Speciation: inbreeding ceases
because some sort of barrier separates a
single population into two (an area with
no food, a mountain, etc.). The
populations evolve independently, and if
they change enough, then even if the
barrier is removed, they can not
interbreed

Sympatric speciation: Interbreeding
ceases even though no physical barrier
prevents it.
› Two several forms
 Polyploidy: a conditions in which an individual
has more than the normal number of sets of
chromosomes
 Balanced polymorphism: this condition can lead
to speciation if two variants diverge enough to
no longer be able to interbreed
Microevolution: Evolution on a species
level
 Macroevolution: Evolution on a large
scale


Genetic Drift:
1. Genetic drift refers to changes in allele
frequencies of a gene pool due to
chance, more often in small populations
2. Genetic drift occurs when founders
start a new population, or after a
genetic bottleneck with interbreeding.

Gene Flow:
1. Gene flow (gene migration) is the movement
of alleles among populations by migration of
breeding individuals.
2. Gene flow can increase variation within a
population by introducing novel alleles
3. Continued gene flow decreases diversity
among populations, causing gene pools to
become similar.
4. Gene flow among populations can prevent
speciation from occurring.

Fitness: Describe the ability of an
organism to survive and reproduce
(produce fertile offspring)

Natural Selection: The ability of the
organisms to survive and reproduce
› Three conditions of natural selection
 Variation: a population must exhibit phenotypic
variance –difference between individuals
 Heritability: if a trait cannot be inherited, it
cannot be selected for or against
 Differential reproductive success: measure how
many offspring you produce that survive relative
to how many the other individuals in your
population produce
Protist is a eukaryotic
 Autotrophic or heterotrophic
 Multicellular or unicellular
 Mostly asexual
 Mostly aquatic
 Motile or nonmotile

Ex: Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium, Algae, Slime Molds
The domain is larger than the kingdom on the
hierarchical level of classification.
 Domain is based on molecular classification

› Three domain system:
 Archae– no nucleus (prokaryote), cell wall without
peptioglycan, lives in extreme environment
 Bacteria- No nucleus (prokaryote), cell wall with
peptioglycan, all other bacteria
 Eukarya- Nucleus (eukaryote), some with cell wall,
motile/nonmotile

Six Kingdoms
› Protista: Heterotrophic or Autotrophic
 Unicellular or Multicellular
 Mostly aquatic
 Mostly asexual
 Motile or Nonmotile
 The endosymbiosis theory explains how organisms
developed organelles

Fungi
› Heterotrophic
› Unicellular or Multicellular
› Mostly terrestrial
› Asexual or sexual
› Nonmotile
› Important decomposers in the environment
› Ex: Mushrooms, molds, yeasts

Plantae
› Multicellular
› Autotrophic
› Mostly terrestrial
› Asexual or Sexual
› Nonmotile

Animal
› Multicellular
› Heterotrophic
› Terrestrial and Aquatic
› Sexual (a few are asexual)
› Motile (a few are nonmotile--sessile)

Archaebacteria
› Prokaryotic
› Lives in Extreme Environments
› Cell wall made up of without
peptioglycan

Eubacteria
› Prokarytic
› Cell wall made up of peptioglycan
› Normal Bacteria
Photoautotroph: An organism capable of
synthesizing its own food from inorganic
substances using light as an energy source.
 Chemoautotroph: An organism (typically a
bacterium or a protozoan ) that obtains
energy through chemical process, which is
by the oxidation of electron donating
molecules from the environment, rather than
by photosynthesis.

Chemoheterotroph: An organism
deriving energy by ingesting
intermediates or building blocks that it is
incapable of creating on its own.
 Photoheterotroph: An organism that
depends on light for most of its energy
and principally on organic compounds
for its carbon.

Eumetazoa: tissues and organs present;
nervous system with neurons
 Acoelomate: no body cavity; body
double-walled sac surrounding digestive
cavity; single opening to outside;
characteristic of flatworms
 Pseudocoelomate:no body cavity;
body double-walled sac surrounding
digestive cavity; single opening to
outside; characteristic of flatworms

Coelomates: have body cavity
 Protostomes: Mouth develops first
 Deuterostomes: Anus develops first

Protostome – mouth develops first
Deuterostome – anus develops first
Ectoderm – outside layer, skin
Mesoderm – middle layer, muscles
Endoderm – inside layer, gut
Coelom – body cavity
Pseudocoelom - partial
body cavity
Radial Symmetry Body parts arranged in
a wheel
Bilateral Symmetry –
right and left sides

Three parts to a plant include
› Roots
› Shoots
› Leaves

Three basic tissue include
› Ground tissue: that makes up most of the body of
the plant, is found between the dermal and
vascular tissue. It can be divided into three cell
types: collenchyma, parenchyma, an
dsclerenchyma
› Vascular tissue:
 Xylem: support structure that strengthens the plant
and functions as a passageway for the transport
water and minerals from the soil
 Phloem: Function as the highway for plants in the
assisting of sugars from one place to another.
› Dermal Tissue: provides the protective outer
covering for plants.
 Skin of the plant is its epidermis
 Within the epidermis is guard cells which control the
opening and closing of gaps called stomata –which is
vital to photosynthesis.

Alternation of generation: Plant life cycle,
so named because during the cycle,
plants sometimes exist as a diploid
organism and at other times as a haploid
organisms.
Primary Growth: Occurs in the apical
meristem which is the region that
lengthens the plants.
 Secondary Growth: Occurs in the lateral
meristem which causes the plant to
increase in width


Transpiration: Is the process of moving water
through the plant. The water is removed from
the plant through evaporation out of the
leaves. Transpiration creates a negative
pressure in the leaves and xylem tissue due to
the evaporative loss of water. Water
molecules display molecular attraction
(cohesion) and other water molecules, in
effect creating a single united water
molecule that runs the length of the plant.

Translocation: the transport of carbohydrates
through the phloem. The movement of the
sugar into the phloem creates a driving force
because it establishes a concentration
gradient. The gradient leads to the passive
diffusion of water into the phloem, causing an
increase in the pressure of these cells.
Xylem: support structure that strengthens
the plant and functions as a passageway
for the transport water and minerals from
the soil
 Phloem: Function as the highway for
plants in the assisting of sugars from one
place to another.

Abscisic acid: “babysitter hormone” It
makes sure that seeds do not germinate
too early, inhibits cell growth, and
stimulates the closing of the stomata to
make sure the plant maintains enough
water.
 Auxin: (Important AP Biology exam
hormone selection) – elongation of stems,
and plants a role in phototropism and
gravitropism

Cytokinins: promotes cell division and leaf
enlargement. Supermarkets use this to keep
veggies of fresh. Fountain of youth hormone
 Ethylene: Initiates fruit ripening and causes
flowers and leaves to drop from trees
 Gibberellins: Stem elongation. Think Grow
when comes to this hormone. It is also
thought to induce the growth of dormant
seeds, buds, and flowers


Phototropism: plant’s growth response to
light. Auxin is the hormone in charge of
stem elongation here. The stem
elongation occurs at the apical
meristem

Photoperiodism: the response by a plant
to change in the length of the day.

Short-day plants: Exposure to a night longer
than a certain number of hours.
› Flowering: end of the summer to end of the winter
 Example: Poinsettas

Long-day plants: exposure to a night shorter
than a certain number of hours
› Flowering: Late spring to early summer
 Example: Spinach

Four major tissue in animals include:
› Epithelial: is made of closely-packed cells
arranged in flat sheets. Epithelia form the
surface of the skin, line the various cavities and
tubes of the body, and cover the internal
organs.

Muscle: Three kinds of muscle are found in
vertebrates:
› Skeletal muscle is made of long fibers whose
contraction provides the force of locomotion and
other voluntary body movements.
› Smooth muscle lines the walls of the hollow structures
of the body, such as the intestine, urinary bladder,
uterus, and blood vessels. Its contraction, which is
involuntary, reduces the size of these hollow organs.
› The heart is made of cardiac muscle.

Connective Tissue
› The cells of connective tissue are embedded in a
great amount of extracellular material. This matrix
is secreted by the cells. It consists of protein fibers
embedded in an amorphous mixture of proteinpolysaccharide ("proteoglycan") molecules.
› This includes: Cartilage, bone, ligaments, tendons,
adipose tissue

Nerve: Nerve tissue is composed of nerve cells
called neurons and glial cells.
› Neurons are specialized for the conduction of
nerve impulses. A typical neuron consists of a cell
body which contains the nucleus; a number of
short fibers — dendrites — extending from the cell
body a single long fiber, the axon.

Ectoderm: Tissue that covers the body
coverings.
› Forms the central nervous system, the lens of
the eye, cranial and sensory, the ganglia and
nerves, pigment cells, head connective tissues,
the epidermis, hair, and mammary glands
Mesoderm:layer forms in the embryos of
triploblastic animals. During gastrulation, some
of the cells migrating inward contribute to the
mesoderm, an additional layer between the
endoderm and the ectoderm.
 The formation of a mesoderm led to the
development of a coelom. Organs formed
inside a coelom can freely move, grow, and
develop independently of the body wall while
fluid cushions and protects them from shocks

› Forms the skeletal muscle, the skeleton, the dermis
of skin, connective tissue, the urogenital system, the
heart, blood (lymph cells), and the spleen

Endoderm: is one of the germ layers
formed during animal embryogenesis.
Cells migrating inward along the
archenteron form the inner layer of the
gastrula
› Forms into the stomach, the colon, the liver,
the pancreas, the urinary bladder, the lining of
the urethra, the epithelial parts of trachea, the
lungs, the pharynx, the thyroid, the
parathyroid, and the intestines.

Function of the circulatory system
includes:
› Left side of heart  aorta  via arteries to
organs, muscles  into venous system of the
body (vena cava)  right side of the heart
 lungs (pick up oxygen)  left side of heart

Three components of the circulatory
system includes:
› Arteries: Oxygenated blood to the body
› Veins: Deoxygenated blood bringing blood
back to the heart
› Capillaries: Exchanging gases between
arteries and veins
Blood buffer system regulate blood pH
through the liquid portion of the blood
called plasma.
 The kidneys filter the blood that regulates
the pH of the blood.

Systemic circulation: Systemic circulation
supplies nourishment to all of the tissue
located throughout your body, with the
exception of the heart and lungs because
they have their own systems. Systemic
circulation is a major part of the overall
circulatory system.
 Pulmonary circulation: Pulmonary circulation
is the movement of blood from the heart, to
the lungs, and back to the heart again. This is
just one phase of the overall circulatory
system.


Two main types found in the immune system
in animals:
› Nonspecific immunity: nonspecific prevention of
the entrance of invaders into the body.
 Example: Saliva contains an enzyme called lysozyme
that can kill germs before they have a chance to
take hole
 Skin covering the entire the body
› Specific immunity: multilayered defense
mechanism: 1- first line of defense—phagocytes,
macrophage, neutrophils, complement; 2- second
line of defense: B cells (plasma/memory), T cells
(helper/cytoxic)

Inflammatory response: A fundamental
type of response by the body to disease
and injury, a response characterized by
the classical signs of pain, heat (localized
warmth), redness, and swelling.

Cell-mediated immunity: involves direct
cellular response to invasion as opposed
to antibody-based defense
› Managed by T- cells

Humoral immunity system:deals with
infectious agents in the blood and body
tissues
› Managed by B-cells with the help from T-cells
Primary Immune response: antigen invader 
B cell meets antigen B cell differentiates into
plasma cells and memory cells  plasma cells
produce antiboides antibodies eliminate
antigen (humoral immunity)
 Secondary immune response: antigen invader
 memory cells recognize antigen and pump
out antibodies much quicker than primary
response  antibodies eliminate antigen


Kidney: The kidneys are bean-shaped organs, each
about the size of a fist. They are located near the middle
of the back, just below the rib cage, one on each side of
the spine. The kidneys are sophisticated reprocessing
machines. Every day, a person’s kidneys process about
200 quarts of blood to sift out about 2 quarts of waste
products and extra water. The wastes and extra water
become urine, which flows to the bladder through tubes
called ureters. The bladder stores urine until releasing it
through urination

Ectotherm: Cold blooded organisms
› Snake

Endotherm: Warm blooded organisms
› Human

Central Nervous System: makes up the brain
and spinal column
› Controls skeletal muscles and voluntary movement

Peripheral Nervous System: Can be broken
down into sensory and motor division
› The sensory division carries information to the CNS
while the motor division carries information away
from the CNS
› Autonomic Nervous System: controls involuntary
activities of the body: smooth muscles, cardiac
muscles, and glands.
 Can be divided down further to sympathetic and
parasympathetic
Sympathetic Nervous System: It is the
part of the “Fright and Flight”Response. It
uses energy - your blood pressure
increases, your heart beats faster, and
digestion slows down
 Parasympathetic Nervous System: “Read
and Digest” response. It works to save
you energy by lowering blood pressure,
heart beat slows, and digestion starts.


Glial Cells:A supportive cell in the central
nervous system -- the brain and spinal cord.
Glial cells do not conduct electrical impulses
(as opposed to neurons, which do). The glial
cells surround neurons and provide support for
them and insulation between them. Glial cells
are capable of extensive signaling in
response to a diversity of stimuli.

There are three parts that make up a neuron:
› Cell Body: Main body of the neuron
› Dendrite: is one of many short, branched
processes of a neuron that help bring the nerve
impulses toward the cell body
› Axons: are longer extensions that leave from a
neuron and carry the impulse away from the cell
body toward target cells.
Mechanoreceptors enable us to detect
touch monitor the position of our muscles,
bones, and joints and detect sounds and the
motion of the body
 Chemoreceptors: a sensory nerve cell or
sense organ, as of smell or taste, that
responds to chemical stimuli
 Photoreceptors: A nerve ending, cell, or
group of cells specialized to sense or receive
light.

A skeletal muscle fiber shows striations.
 These straitions result from a specific
arrangements of proteins inside the myofibre.
The two principal type of proteins are myosin
(forming the thick filament) and actin (forming
thin filaments)
 The sarcomere is the distance between two Z
lines which are formed by the joining points of
the thin filaments. The lighter I band represents
areas where the thin filaments are present
while the H band is where both actin and
myosin run parallel to each other.


Sliding filament model: contraction
occurs in the sarcomere of striated
muscle, by the sliding of the thick
filaments relative to the thin filaments.

Four essential nutrients:

Carbs- ingested in the form of polysaccharides,
used mainly as fuel
Lipids- are used as fuel, as components of cell
membranes, and to synthesize steroid hormones
and other lipid substances, ingested as
triglycerides
Proteins- serve as enzymes and are essential
structural components of cells
Vitamins- are organic compounds required in
small amounts for many biochemical processes,
some serve as components of coenzymes
Minerals- are inorganic nutrients ingested as salts
dissolved in food and water




Blood traveling through the
heart
1- Blood arrives through vena
cava into right atrium
2- Right atrium through
tricupsid valve
3- Right ventricles (least
oxygenated blood)
4- To lungs through
pulmonary artery by route of
pulmonary valve
5- Blood returns to heart
through pulmonary vein
6- Enters left atrium (most
oxygenated blood)
7- Enters the left ventricle
through the mitral valve
8- Goes to the aorta by route
of aortic valve
9- To the rest of the body
Blue section of
the heart is the
deoxygenated
blood
Red section is
the oxygenated
blood
Plasma: The liquid portion of the blood,
which contains minerals, hormones,
antibodies, and nutritional materials.
 Plasma purpose is allows blood to flow so
efficiently

Erythrocytes: Red blood cells that
contains the protein hemoglobin
 Leukocytes: White blood cells that
function for the defense of the organisms
 Platelets: or thrombocytes – these blood
cells are responsible for stopping blood
around the wound.

Each heartbeat has two basic parts: diastole
or relaxation, and atrial and ventricular
systole (SIS-toe-lee), or contraction.
 During diastole, the atria and ventricles of
your heart relax and begin to fill with blood.
At the end of diastole, your heart's atria
contract (atrial systole) and pump blood into
the ventricles. The atria then begin to relax.
Next, your heart's ventricles contract
(ventricular systole) and pump blood out of
your heart.

Humoral immunity involves the T lymphocytes
cells and B lymphocytes
 The plasma cells are the factories that produce
antibodies that function in the elimination of any
cell containing on its surface the antigen that it
has been summoned to killed. These antibodies,
when released, bind to the antigens, immobilzing
them and marking them for the marophages to
engulf and eliminate

Cell-mediated immunity involves direct
cellular response to invasion as opposed
to anitbody-based defense.
 Cytotoxic T Cells into play

Aldosterone: regulates sodium
concentration of the body.
 It helps in maintaining the blood pressure
and liquids/electrolytes in the blood.
 The kidney hormone kenin normally
stimulates the adrenal glands released
aldosterone


Renin-angiotensin system is the hormone
that regulates blood pressure
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): stimulates
reabsorption of water by the collecting ducts of
the nephron.
 ADH is a hormone stored in the posterior pituitary
gland in the brain. It regulates water in the body.
ADH acts on the kidneys to increase total body
water. This increases blood volume and blood
pressure.
 These cells sense the concentration of particles in
the blood. When the concentration is high, the
pituitary releases more ADH. This causes more
water to be retained to dilute the body fluids.
When the concentration is low, the pituitary
releases less ADH.

Steroid hormones: are lipid-soluble molecules
that pass through the cell membrane and
combine with cytoplasmic proteins.
 Function: Reproduction, glucose metabolism,
and the response to stress and salt balance

Peptide (Protein) Hormone: water-soluble
hormones comprised of a few amino acids
that introduce a series of chemical reactions
to change the cell's metabolism. Examples
include hormones of the pituitary gland and
parathyroid glands.
 The proteins are too large to move into cells
and thus bind to receptors on the surface of
cells

Secondary Messengers: In response to
the binding of a protein hormone, a
change in the receptor that leads to the
activation of molecules inside the cell,
which serve as intermedairies, activating
other proteins and enzymes that carry
out the mission
 Two examples:

› cAMP
› G proteins
› Calicum ions
Insulin: produced in the pancreas
 Three functions of insulin include:

› To release insulin in the pancreas to be stored in
the glycogen
› Used for energy
› Sometimes between meals, your glucose level
drops below the desired glucose level– this will
cause your glycogen into action causing the
pancreas into action.
Glucagon: Stimulates conversion of
glycogen into glucose.
 Stored in the liver
 Raises the blood sugar
 Stores blood sugar (in the liver) and will
stimulate the pancreas to release insulin from
the pancreas when blood sugar (glucose)
drops.

Introduction: development begins as soon
as the egg is fertilized to produce a diploid
zygote (2n).
 Cleavage: cytoplasm is distributed unevenly
to the daughter cells but genetic
information is distributed unevenly.
 These cleavage division take a while in
humans. The first three division takes 3 days
to complete. After the fourth division, the
one cell has become 16 cells and is now
called a morula.

As it undergoes it next round of cell division,
fluid fills the center of the morula to create
the hollow-looking structure known as the
blastula.
 Gastrulation (also called morphogenesis)cells separate into three primary layers
called germ layers, which eventually give
rise to the different tissues of an adult
 Holoblastic: Total or entire cleavage
 Meroblastic: Partial Cleavage

Archenteron: Hollow space
 This results in the formation of three dermal
layers

› The ectoderm (forms outer covering & nervous
tissue)
› The endoderm (gut & outpocketings like liver &
lungs)
› The mesoderm (muscles & other organs, forms
later in the blastocoel of the gastrula)
Cytoplasmic Determinants (distribution):
different amounts of cytoplasmic signal
different structures
 Gene Expression: (homeotic genes) regulate
or “direct” the body plan of organisms
 Morphogenesis (same as gastrulation) cells
separate into three primary layers called
germ layers
 Pattern Formation: Formation of different
germ layers

Positional Information: During gastrulation
will allow the cell to form different cells
(endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm)
 Morphogens: Substance that governs
tissue development.


Autonomic Nervous System(ANS): Controls
involuntary activities of body.
› Regulates: Muscles
in the skin (around hair follicles; smooth muscle)
around blood vessels (smooth muscle)
in the eye (the iris; smooth muscle)
in the stomach, intestines and bladder (smooth
muscle)
 of the heart (cardiac muscle)





Somatic Nervous System: Is responsible
for voluntary body movements
› Skeletal Muscles
› Touch
› Hearing
› Sight

Parts of the brain
› Medulla: Control center for involuntary activities
such as breathing
› Pons: Arousal, controlling autonomic function,
relaying sensory information between cerebrum
and cerebellum, sleep
› Cerebellum is in charge of coordination and
balance

Reticular formation: located inside the brain
stem – responsible for Arousal, Attention,
Cardiac Reflexes, Motor Functions, Regulates
Awareness, Relays Nerve Signals to the
Cerebral Cortex, Sleep
Thalamus: Motor Control, Receives Auditory,
Somatosensory and Visual Sensory Signals,
Relays Sensory Signals to the Cerebral Cortex
Controls Sleep and Awake States
 Hypothalamus: is the thermostat and hungermeter of the body, regulating temperature,
hunger and thirst
 Cerebral cortex: many "higher-order"
functions likelanguage and information
processing. “Gray matter”


Demography: is the scientific study of
characteristics and dynamics pertaining to
the populations. The characteristics
encompassed by this study include size,
growth rate, density, vital statistics, and
distribution of a specified population
Density dependent factors is dependent on
the size of the population
 Three density dependent factors:

› Disease
› Competition
› Parasites

Density independent factors: is a limiting
factor that does not depend on
population size.
› Natural disaster
› Seasonal changes
› Climate/Weather
Exponential growth: the population grows
at a rate that creates a J-shaped curve.
The population grows as if there are no
limitation as to how large it can get (biotic
potential)
 Logistic growth: the population grows at a
rate that creates an S-shaped curve similar
to the initial portion. Limiting factors are the
culprits responsible for the S shaped of the
curve, putting a cap on the size to which
the population can grow.

K-selected populations: Populations of
roughly constant size whose members have
low reproductive rates. The offspring
produced by these K-selected organisms
require extensive postnatal care until they
have sufficiently matured. Humans are an
example
 R-selected: Populations that experience rapid
growth of the J-curve variety. The offspring
produced by R-selected organisms are
numerous, mature quite rapidly, and require
very little postnatal care. Also known as
opportunistic population


Survivorship Curves:
› Type I: individuals live long life until an age is
reached where the death rate in the population
increases rapidly, causing the steep downward
end. Example: Human and larger mammals
› Type II: Individuals have a death that is reasonably
constant across the age spectrum. Example:
lizards, hydra, other small mammals
› Type III: Individuals have steep downward curve
for those of young age, representing a death rate
that flattens out once a certain age is reached .
Example: many fishes, oysters, and other marine
organisms

Defense Mechanisms
› Aposematic coloration: warning coloration adopted
by animals that possess a chemical defense
mechanism
› Batesian mimicry: an animal that his harmless copies
the appearance of an animal that is dangerous to
trick predators.
› Cryptic coloration: organisms hunted adopt a coloring
scheme that allows them to blend in tto the colors of
the environment
› Mullerian mimicry: two species that are aposematically
colored as an indicator of their chemical defense
mechanism mimic each other’s color scheme in an
effort to increase the speed with which their predators
learn to avoid them
Mullerian mimicry
Cryptic
Coloration
Batesian mimicry
Aposematic coloration

Symbiosis: A relationship between two
different species
› Commensalism: One species benefits and
other is neither harmed or helped (+/0)
› Mutualism: Both species benefited (+/+)
› Parasitism: One species benefit and the
other is harmed (+/-)

Competition: Both species are harmed.
Organisms are fighting for the same
resource (food, nutrients, space, etc)
› Intraspecific competition: Competition within
species
› Interspecific competition: competition between
different species

Predation: “Negative” interactions in the
community. One species is the predator
while the other is the prey

Keystone predator is an animal that is
important for maintaining species richness
(number of species) in a community.
Keystone predators feed on different species
that normally would compete with each
other.
› Example (From your notes): A good example of a
keystone predator is Piaster, a sea star, that reduces
the populations of a mussel, Mytilus. If Piaster is
experimentally removed from the community, the
species richness of the community decreased from 15
to 8 species. The reason for this decline is because
Mytilus propogated and outnumbered other species
found in the community.
Trophic Structure: distribution of energy
on the planet can be subdivided into a
hierarchy of energy level
 This includes predator-prey, parasite-host
and plant-herbivore relationships
 Energy flows through the ecosystem in
one direction


Elements (Nitrogen, Carbon, Water, and
Phosphorus, Oxygen)are cycled through
the ecosystem in a circular pattern
(Materials are recycled) Go back a look at
the cycles – you don’t have to memorize
them but be familiar with them

Biomagnification: is the progressive build up of
persistent substances by successive trophic
levels - meaning that it relates to the
concentration ratio in a tissue of a predator
organism as compared to that in its prey.
Succession: It is the predictable changes in
a community
 Primary Succession: Occurs in an area that
is devoid of life and contains NO SOIL

› Volcanic Island that has just formed in the
ocean

Secondary Succession: Occurs in an area
that once had stable life but has been
disturbed by some major force
› Forest fire, Hurricane, Farming, Logging, or
Tornado

Pioneer Species: (usually small plants)
able to survive in resource- poor
conditions take s hold of a barren area.
› First species to exist in an area
Primary Succession
Secondary Succession

Human impact on
› Enhanced Greenhouse effect An increase in
the natural process of the greenhouse effect,
brought about by human activities, whereby
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide,
methane, chlorofluorocarbons and nitrous
oxide are being released into the atmosphere
at a far greater rate than would occur through
natural processes and thus their
concentrations are increasing. Also called
anthropogenic greenhouse effect or climate
change
Human impact on reduction of ozone layer
Human activities in the last several decades
have produced chemicals, such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which have
been released into the atmosphere and have
contributed to the depletion of this important
protective layer
 Acid Precipitation: Human activities in the last
several decades have produced chemicals,
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which
have been released into the atmosphere and
have contributed to the depletion of this
important protective layer


Human impact on introduced species (invasive
species)-An invasion is under way that is
undermining our economy and endangering our
most precious natural treasures. The incursion
comes not from foreign armies, political terrorists,
or extraterrestrials. Instead, the stealthy invaders
are alien species. These plants and animals have
been introduced—either intentionally or by
accident—into areas outside their natural
ranges. Unchecked by natural controls, invasive
species are spreading across our lands and
through our waterways, and wreaking havoc
with already fragile native species and
ecosystems

Innate Behavior: behavior determined
by the "hard-wiring" of the nervous
system. It is usually inflexible, a given
stimulus triggering a given response
› Example: A salamander raised away from
water until long after its siblings begin
swimming successfully will swim every bit as
well as they the very first time it is placed in
the water

Learned Behavior: behavior that is more
or less permanently altered as a result of
the experience of the individual
organism
› Example: learning to play baseball well
Taxis: A response in which the direction of
movement is affected by an environmental
cue
 Kinesis: a movement or activity of a cell or
an organism in response to a stimulus
 Imprinting: A process whereby a young
animal follow the characteristics of his/her
mother after hatching. It can be filial
imprinting or following a future mating
partner.

Operant Conditioning: is a method of learning
that occurs through rewards and punishments
for behavior
 Classical Conditioning: is a learning process
that occurs through associations between an
environmental stimulus and a naturally
occurring stimulus

› Pavlov’s Dog

Habituation: a decrease in response to a
stimulus after repeated presentation
› Example:a snail moving across a wooden surface and when the
experimenter taps on the surface the snail withdraws into its shell
but after a few taps it learns that it isn't going to harm it and
ignores the tapping

Lab Bench

Biocoach –great review of topics