Unit 4 Revision Points –
Enhancing Physical
Performance
VCE Physical Education
Murtoa College
Enhancing fitness through
training

1.
2.
3.
4.
Outcome 1 - Planning and evaluation of
training programs to enhance fitness
Fitness definitions and components
Data collection and activity analysis
Assessment of fitness
Fitness training principles and methods
Chapter 7
Fitness definitions and components
1

Fitness is an elusive topic that means different things to different people.

Fitness is defined as ‘the ability to carry out daily tasks (work and play)
with vigour and alertness, without undue fatigue and with ample reserve
energy to enjoy leisure-time pursuits and to meet unforeseen emergencies’.

Sports have different fitness requirements and we are all different
physically.

The fitness requirements of a sport can change and our own fitness levels
can change in response to a wide range of factors including health, activity
levels and motivation.

When being specific about the fitness requirements of a sport or the fitness
attributes of an athlete, we refer to the fitness components.

The fitness components are predominantly related to the anaerobic
energy systems.
.
Fitness definitions and components
2

The exception is Aerobic endurance, which is associated with the aerobic
energy system.

Each of the components of fitness  aerobic endurance; muscular
strength; local muscular endurance; muscular power; flexibility; anaerobic
power and speed; and agility and body composition  is affected by a range
of factors including age, gender and degree of training.

While it is rare to see one component of fitness in isolation  as most are
interrelated  it cannot be assumed that an athlete who has one highly
developed component of fitness also has other highly developed
components
Multiple Choice Questions
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Which sport would
require the greatest
amount of local
muscular endurance?
Weightlifting
Rowing
Shot put
100m sprint
2. Which components are
not directly related?
a. Strength and speed
b. Flexibility and body
composition
c. Agility and speed
d. Coordination and power
Short Answer Question
List the fitness components being tested in
the following tests.
a. 12 minute run
b. Standing long jump
c. 40 sprint
d. Sit ups
e. Sit and reach
Chapter 8
Data collection and activity analysis
1

The main purpose of data collection is to gather information about the
physical, mental, tactical and technical requirements of an activity or sport
so that training and game performance can be improved.

Our focus is principally on the physical aspect (physiological fitness
requirements); however, all areas have an impact on all the other areas.

When assessing fitness requirements, we are particularly interested in
which energy systems, fitness components and muscle groups are involved.

A range of data collection methods is available including observation;
observation with statistical data collection; and video recording and
statistical data collection.

Each of these methods has advantages and disadvantages; however, with
new computer technology, video recording is seen to be the way of the
future (at least at the elite level) as this type of data is much more reliable.
Data collection and activity analysis
2

Examples of data collected include skill frequency, movement patterns,
intensity charts, workrest ratios and heart rate.

Depending on the skill and knowledge of the observer, a great deal can be
inferred from the data gathered, particularly if we know the intensity and
duration of the exercise sessions.

The purpose of analysis is to identify patterns in data, recognise
relationships, make connections and draw inferences. The better the quality
of the data and the more skilled the analyst, the more useful the analysis
will be to the coach and player(s).

Analysis can take the form of immediate observations that inform
decisions on game day, through to detailed computer analysis of data
collected over a whole season or more.

Data collected can inform and guide training and forward planning of
factors such as diet; training methods; training cycles – micro and macro;
pre-game warm-up; and post-game recovery.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Heart rate monitoring of
an athlete can revel:
a. The intensity of an
activity
b. Where work and rest
periods occur
c. Energy systems used
d. All of the above
2. The most reliable method
of data collection is:
a. Observation only
b. Observation and stats
c. Observation, stats and
video taping
d. Statistics only
Short Answer Question
a.
b.
c.
d.
Explain the main purpose of data collection.
Discuss one advantage and one disadvantage
of using observation only to record a teams
performance.
List three types of data that can be collected.
Why is training analysis less valuable than
game analysis?
Chapter 9
Assessment of fitness

There are numerous reasons for undertaking fitness testing. Key
among these are: benchmarking; identifying strengths and
weaknesses; monitoring progress; setting new targets; and motivation.

The tests chosen must be reliable and valid; that is, they must
produce consistently accurate results and must test what they set out
to test.

There are two broad approaches to testing  direct, maximal testing
and indirect, submaximal testing. Each has advantages and
disadvantages.

Direct testing tends to be confined to expensive laboratories.
Indirect, submaximal testing tends to be used most often because it is
easier to administer, requires less expertise and requires minimal
equipment.
Chapter 9
Assessment of fitness

There is a range of tests available for each fitness component.

Where available, an athlete may make use of ‘norms’ (standards
that are ‘normal’ or typical for a group) but caution should be
exercised in referring to these norms. Where norms are not available,
the athlete should use personal bests as a guide.
Multiple Choice Questions
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Direct testing:
Is the most effective but
is very expensive
Should be used as a
last resort
Only an estimate of an
athlete’s fitness
Can easily be used in a
school setting
2. The phosphate recovery
test:
a. Is a test for strength
b. Uses decrements when
scoring
c. Is measured over 100m
distance
d. Tests the lactic acid
system
Short Answer Question
As a rowing coach, you need to determine the fitness levels
of a rower prior to competition.
a.
Suggest a suitable test for the rowers local muscular
endurance levels.
b.
Why might you measure the athlete’s BMI?
c.
Would an agility test be suitable for a rower? Justify
your answer.
d.
What is the advantage of conducting maximal testing
over sub-maximal testing?
e.
Explain why a male rower would achieve better results
on a beep test than a female.
Chapter 10
Fitness training principles and methods
1

Adhering to a set of key training principles aids an athlete in getting the
most from their training program.

The key training principles are specificity, frequency, intensity,
progressive overload and duration.

The principle of specificity requires that athletes train the specific energy
systems, fitness components and muscle groups for optimal fitness gains.

Training should be specific to the physiological adaptations required at the
time.

Improvements in performance occur as a result of adaptation to physical
stress. An increase in the training workload will bring about physiological
changes that make the body better able to cope with the stresses placed on
it.
Fitness training principles and methods
2

Progressive overload principle states that to gain maximum benefit
from training, workloads must be gradually adjusted upwards as
adaptation to stress takes place.

A general rule is that only one factor is adjusted upwards and that the
increments are gradual.

Periodisation is the process of dividing training into discrete time
periods or cycles.

Training induces a catabolic, or destructive, tiring effect that is then
followed by an anabolic or constructive effect during the recovery
period. It is during the recovery periods between heavy workouts that
many of the physiological adjustments to training (i.e. the adaptations)
occur.

To achieve maximal fitness gains, the new (increased) loading must
be introduced at the highest point in the overcompensation phase.
Fitness training principles and methods
3

The frequency principle: the more frequently an athlete trains and the
longer the training program, the greater the fitness benefits (provided
adequate rest is obtained).

Generally, train two times per week for fitness maintenance and three or
more times per week for fitness gains.

Since anaerobic training is completed at high intensity, anaerobic athletes
need more time to recover, so they require fewer training sessions than
endurance athletes.

Intensity refers to how hard the training sessions are and is generally
measured in terms of heart-rate response to exercise.

The lower the initial VO2 max, the greater the improvements with training.

Duration may refer to either the length of time of each training session or
the length of the training program (in weeks or months). It is becoming more
common to refer to the duration of training in terms of macro, meso and
microcycles.
Fitness training principles and methods
4

A training session generally consists of a warm-up (involving aerobic work
and stretching), skill development and tactics, a strength and conditioning
bout and a cool-down (again involving light aerobic work and stretching).

The training season consists of a number of macrocycles – pre-season,
competition (in-season) and off-season.

There is a wide range of training methods available including interval
training (sessions of work interspersed with sessions of rest), continuous
training, Fartlek training, circuit training, plyometrics, flexibility training,
strength (weight) training, speed training, Pilates and Swiss ball.

Skill development depends on a range of factors related to an athlete’s
abilities and command of various specific techniques.

When developing skill, an athlete and their coach must consider a range of
factors including current ability/skill level, own and opponent’s strengths
and weaknesses, environmental conditions and external lifestyle demands.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The method of
training that would
be most suitable for
a long jump athlete
would be:
a. Interval
b. Circuit
c. Plyometric
d. Fartlek
2. The most important
principle in terms of
maximal fitness
gains is:
a. Frequency
b. Duration
c. Overload
d. Intensity
Short Answer Question
A swimmer completes six reps of a 50 swimming pool in 40
seconds per lap with a 2 minute recovery between
reps.
a.
What type of training is being used?
b.
What is the predominant energy system being used?
c.
Calculate the work:rest ratio.
d.
How could the swimmer use the principle of overload
in her next session?
e.
Give a reason why running and cycling is
recommended occasionally in a swimmers training
program.
Strategies for enhancing sports
performance

1.
2.
3.
4.
Outcome 2 - Evaluate practices and/or
strategies used conjunction to enhance sports
performance
Training adaptations
Managing a training load and sports injury risk
management
Performance enhancement from a
psychological perspective
Performance enhancement: nutrition, diet and
other considerations
Chapter 11
Training adaptations
1

The training principle of adaptation is also referred to as the SAID
principle, which stands for: S = Specific; A = Adaptation; I= Imposed; D =
Demands and basically states that the physical activity we are involved in
encourages our bodies to adapt in specific ways to meet its demands.

Adaptations are the result of specific demands placed on the body and are
dependent on the volume, intensity and frequency of training.

The type of training undertaken will ultimately determine the nature of the
adaptations that occur. Essentially, training can be broken down into two
discrete forms: aerobic and anaerobic.

Training that predominantly calls upon the ATPPC and/or lactic acid (LA)
system(s) will bring about specific changes to these systems.

Aerobic training leads to improvements in oxygen uptake, transport and
use, resulting in improved aerobic energy system capacity.
Training adaptations
2

Aerobic training results in increased capillarisation, mitochondria
density and oxidative enzymes, which, along with structural changes
to the cardiovascular system, increase the anaerobic threshold from
85 per cent to 90 per cent of a person’s maximum heart rate.

The heart is a muscle and it adapts to different training regimes.
Aerobic training leads to increases in ventricle size, whereas
anaerobic training tends to increase the ventricle wall thickness.

The heart becomes more efficient in response to aerobic training. It is
able to pump out larger volumes of blood and oxygen with each beat
and at both rest and submaximal levels does not need to beat as
much to supply the body with its demands.

More blood (up to 20 per cent) is redistributed to working muscles as a
result of aerobic training. This provides muscles with greater amounts
of oxygen and fuels as well as transporting wastes away at increased
rates.
Training adaptations
3

Endurance training results in improved pulmonary function and larger lung
volumes. This also sees a larger alveolar-capillary surface area form and
directly increases the diffusion capacities found at the lungs.

Aerobic training improves oxygen supply and increases the muscles’ ability
to use oxygen. These both result in significant increases in the production of
aerobic energy, and lead to increases in VO2 max.

Muscles are made up of slow-twitch (Type I) and fast-twitch (Type II)
muscle fibres. At the muscular level, aerobic training results in a greater
improvement in slow-twitch or Type I muscle fibres and conversely
anaerobic training results in a greater improvement in fast-twitch or Type II
fibres.

Fast-twitch muscle fibres can be further classified as fast-twitch ‘B’ (purely
anaerobic) or fast-twitch ‘A’ (partially aerobic).
Training adaptations
4

Training with high intensity or loads and low repetitions results in greater
hypertrophy to fast-twitch fibres. Training at submaximal intensity or loads
with moderate-to-high repetitions results in greater hypertrophy to slowtwitch fibres.

Regardless of the training undertaken, adaptations occur at the cellular
level to improve the functions associated with muscle action. For example,
aerobic training increases oxidative enzymes, which in turn release and
recycle more ATP under aerobic exercise conditions.

Anaerobic training increases PC stores, which are critical when supplying
ATP during explosive, all-out exercise sessions lasting several seconds.

Adaptations are reversible and the loss of physiological adaptations is
known as detraining. This usually occurs more quickly than the time it took
for the adaptations to occur during training.
Multiple Choice Questions
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Cardiovascular training
cause:
Cardiac atrophy
Decreased left ventricle
volume
Increased left ventricle
thickness
Decreased stroke
volume
2. Respiratory training
adaptations cause:
a. Decreased tidal volume
b. Decreased minute
ventilation
c. Decreased ventilatory
musculature
d. Lowered aerobic
capacity
Short Answer Question
After a 12 month training program, an athlete has gone
from stage 10 to stage 14 on the beep test.
Use either ‘lower’, ‘higher’ or ‘same’ to describe the
adaptations that have occurred.
a.
Resting heart rate
b.
A-VO2 difference
c.
Stroke volume
d.
Respiratory rate
e.
Blood pressure
f.
VO2 max
Chapter 12
Managing a training load and sports injury risk1
management

The principle of recovery tells us that in order to maximise
performance benefits, adequate recovery from the previous training
stimulus is important before a further training stimulus is introduced.

When planning training requirements for an athlete, it is essential to
include adequate recovery time in the program.

A balance between the workload and good recovery will ultimately
maximise performance.

Recovery strategies can include a range of approaches such as
stretching, hydrating and eating suitable foods, massage, and a
variety of hydrotherapy options.

Psychological skills for aiding recovery could involve meditation,
progressive muscle relaxation and breathing exercises.

It is essential to monitor training and recovery.
Managing a training load and sports injury risk management
2

Reliable monitoring techniques and individual guidelines for optimal
workload must be established.

Some useful approaches to monitoring training and recovery are
keeping a training log, developing an athlete’s self-monitoring skills
including physical and psychological monitoring, coaches’
observations and communication with the athlete, and athletes
recording resting heart rate at the same time each day.

Overtraining is a cumulative exhaustion following prolonged and
repeated stresses of training to the point where the rest provided does
not permit adequate recovery.

Continual training without sufficient rest and recovery leads to
excessive fatigue, injury, illness and ultimately a decline in overall
performance.

If a training program is not well designed, overtraining might result.
Managing a training load and sports injury risk management
3

Inadequate and unreliable monitoring of training performance could
contribute to overtraining.

A well-designed, individualised training program with gradual
increases in training stimulus along with a high priority for rest and
recovery will avoid exposing an athlete to overtraining.

Apart form training factors, other related factors in overtraining are a
balanced diet and good sleep patterns.

Psychological signs and symptoms of overtraining can include
moodiness and being easily irritated and angry; increased anxiety and
depressive symptoms; loss of competitive drive and enthusiasm for
physical activity; reduced concentration; apathy; feeling tired, drained
and lacking in energy; inability to relax; being twitchy and fidgety;
altered sleep patterns including insomnia and disturbed sleep;
confusion; being excessively emotional; feelings of helplessness; and
reduced confidence.
Managing a training load and sports injury risk management
4

Physiological signs and symptoms of overtraining may include
persistent soreness, heaviness and weakness in the muscles; body
aches; increased incidence of injuries; prolonged fatigue; loss of
appetite and weight loss; intolerance to training and delayed recovery
from training; elevated resting heart rate; dehydration; excessive
sweating; insatiable thirst; increased susceptibility to infections;
hyperactivity; slower heart-rate recovery; gastrointestinal
disturbances; nausea; swelling of the lymph nodes; and menstrual
irregularities.

If overtraining has occurred it is important to identify the factors that
led to overtraining and make adjustments to rectify this.

The recommended way of treating overtraining is rest and seeking
medical treatment where necessary.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. A coach notices an
athlete’s performance
has not improved and is
losing weight. This may
be attributed to:
a. Overtraining
b. Too much recovery time
c. Progressive overload
d. Too low intensity
2. Which of the following
would not be used in a
risk management plan?
a. Risks involved
b. Action to be taken
c. Consequences of event
occurring
d. Cost involved
Short Answer Question
‘Prevention is better than cure’.
a.
Why is this statement true.
b.
State three ways an athlete can prevent an injury while
competing
c.
Outline how a coach can adjust their training programs
to reduce player injuries
d.
Discuss the treatment of soft tissue injuries such as a
corked thigh.
e.
Explain why clubs need sports trainers.
f.
List an organisation that can assist clubs in developing
and implementing sports safety policy and practice.
Chapter 13
1
Performance enhancement from a psychological
perspective

Psychological skills are the same as physical skills in that they can
be taught, learned and practised. Performance can be radically
improved by employing psychological skills training.

PST programs can focus on one or more principles, depending on
which areas need improvement and these might include goal setting,
arousal, mental rehearsal, confidence building and concentration.

It is best if psychological skills become automatic via overlearning;
that athletes make them an integral part of their training; and that skills
are practised to replicate real game scenarios.

Goal setting has been shown to increase work output by up to 40 or
50 per cent. Goals need to be set for both training and competitions.
Performance enhancement from a psychological perspective
2
There are three types of sporting goals:
1. Outcome goals focus on end results, times, finishing place or
medals.
2. Performance goals focus on comparing present performance levels
with those attained previously, and are independent of other
competitors.
3. Process goals focus on actions such as physical movements and
game strategies that athletes must execute during a game in order to
maximise their performance.

Short-term goals continually provide a more manageable focus point
for athletes and act as the stepping stones for achieving long-term
goals, as well as bringing about improved performances.

The acronym ‘SMARTER’ is an effective way of goal setting. It
stands for:
Specific Measurable Accepted Realistic Time phased Exciting
Recorded
Performance enhancement from a psychological perspective
3

The relationship between arousal and performance is commonly referred
to as the ‘inverted-U’ hypothesis (or graph). It is possible to experience
situations of under-arousal, optimal arousal (also referred to as being in the
‘zone’) and over-arousal.

Arousal reduction techniques include controlled breathing, progressive
muscle relaxation, biofeedback and stress-inoculation training (SIT),
listening to calming music and using routines.

Arousal promotion techniques include rapid breathing, acting
energetically and positively, positive talk and energising imagery and
participating in pre-game work-outs or preparation.

Athletes can attain optimum arousal and concentration levels by trying to
imagine themselves performing skills before actually doing them. This is
known as mental rehearsal, mental imagery or visualisation.
Performance enhancement from a psychological perspective
4

Effective imagery involves a lot more that simply ‘seeing’ how a
performance should be executed. It calls on as many senses as
possible during the rehearsal stage  typically kinaesthetic, auditory
and tactile.

Imagery improves performance by improving neural pathways
between the brain and muscles; providing a mental template of
rehearsed sequences; enabling athletes to prepare for a range of
events and eventualities; working in conjunction with other
psychological skills; and allowing athletes to pre-experience the
achievement of goals that build confidence.

Simulation and visuo-motor behaviour rehearsal are both carried out
by making the physical training environment as similar as possible to
the game setting. Thoughts are actually taken through to the physical
application stage.
Performance enhancement from a psychological perspective

5
Concentration and attention are used interchangeably in sports
psychology and typically contain three parts: focusing on relevant
environmental cues; maintaining attention focus over time; and having
awareness of the situation.

1.
There can be four possible types of attention:
broad-internal focus – used to focus on thoughts and feelings
2. broad-external focus  used to focus outwards on opponent’s actions
3. narrow-internal focus  used to focus thoughts and mentally rehearse
upcoming movements
4. narrow-external focus  used to focus on very few external cues.

Many factors can lead to an athlete experiencing inappropriate attention
focus and their performance can deteriorate as a consequence  for
example, focusing on environmental distractions, focusing on past
performances, future-oriented thinking, fatigue, muscle tension, negative
self-talk, poor handling of game pressure(s) and not sticking to game plans.
Performance enhancement from a psychological perspective
6

Cue words, selective attention training, routines, overlearning and maximum
confidence levels all ensure that concentration levels remain optimal.

Confidence levels and performance attainment closely reflect the invertedU shape demonstrated by the arousal theory. It is possible to lack
confidence, be over-confident or be in the ‘optimum zone’.

Confidence levels remain high if athletes feel that they are adequately
trained to succeed in the activity being undertaken – both physically and
psychologically. Knowing what to expect by having practised many physical
and mental scenarios, and how to respond to them, removes uncertainty
and ensures optimal performance levels.
Multiple Choice Questions
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
The ‘M’ in the
SMARTER guidelines
for goal setting refers to:
Measurable
Motivational
Maintained
Musical
2. Performance goals:
a. Focus on end results
b. Focus on game
strategies
c. Compare performances
d. Allows for greatest
control over their
actions
Short Answer Question
Alisa Camplin is a successful aerial skier.
a.
Alisa uses mental imagery before take-off. Clearly
outline how imagery improves her performance.
b.
Alisa has just had a bad fall. How could see regain her
confidence?
c.
Alisa wants to win gold at next winter Olympics. What
type of goal setting would she use – outcome,
performance or process? Justify your answer.
d.
List two methods of arousal regulation that Alisa could
use prior to her event.
Chapter 14
1
Performance enhancement: nutrition, diet and other
considerations

Athletes and their coaches/support staff, advocate the use of ergogenic
practices and dietary manipulation to improve training, performance and
recovery. Ethical and medico-legal issues need to be carefully considered
by all parties involved.

Many illegal performance-enhancing practices lead to long-term, irreversible
side effects. Masking agents are often used to hide these drugs from
detection by doping agencies.

Many reasons, other than the need to win at all costs, are given to justify
why athletes resort to both legal and illegal performance-enhancing
practices.

Dietitians/nutritionists are professionals trained to provide a wide range of
services to promote health and wellbeing in individuals, groups and
communities. Their expertise is being increasingly used by athletes to
improve their training, performance and recovery by manipulating dietary
intake.
Performance enhancement: nutrition, diet and other considerations
2

Many protocols for carbohydrate loading exist. Consensus among
researchers indicates it is no longer necessary to fully drain carbohydrate
stores with high-intensity exercise and then build up glycogen stores by
consuming excessive amounts of carbohydrates. The preferred model for
carbohydrate loading is one of exercise/training taper followed by increased
carbohydrate intake.

Creatine supplementation is expensive, but when used in conjunction with
increased carbohydrate intake has been found to improve power-related
performances.

Colostrum has been used increasingly over the past five to 10 years and
has been found to be beneficial to athletes’ immune systems and proteinsynthesis mechanisms.

It appears that branched-chain amino acid metabolites support the body’s
ability to minimise protein breakdown (anti-catabolic agent) subsequent to
training stresses seen in intense exercise and may also work to preserve
the integrity of cell membranes.
Performance enhancement: nutrition, diet and other considerations

3
Caffeine is used as a central nervous system stimulant, diuretic, circulatory
stimulant and respiratory stimulant. Some exercise physiologists believe
that caffeine might improve performance by increasing fat oxidation and
conserving muscle glycogen.

Two main factors affect the speed at which fluid from a drink gets into the
body:
1. the speed at which it is emptied from the stomach
2. the rate at which it is absorbed through the walls of the small intestine.

Sports drinks vary according to the amount of dissolved electrolytes they
contain.

Hydration needs to occur before, during and after athletic/activity
participation.
Performance enhancement: nutrition, diet and other considerations
4

Most minerals can be found naturally in a wide variety of foods and in most
cases the minimum daily requirements of minerals are easily met through a
normal, varied diet. Minerals play a vital role in important body functions,
and excess intake might actually produce unwanted side effects. Many
minerals either cannot be stored or adversely affect the function of others
when taken in high doses.

The Australian Sports Commission has established a sports ethics unit to
deal with the issues raised in all areas of sport. Ethics deal with a range of
principles including respect, basic justice and fairness; refusing to take
unfair advantage; willing compliance with sporting laws and rules; freedom
to enjoy and flourish; preventing harm; impartiality and objectivity;
trustworthiness and honesty; transparency; avoiding potential or apparent
conflict of interest; due diligence; and duty of care.

One of the most considered ethical issues in sport deals with performanceenhancing practices, both legal and illegal. But what are the costs (moral,
physical, financial) involved and do these outweigh the benefits?
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which illegal
ergogenic aid is not
a masking agent?
a. Beta-blockers
b. Diuretics
c. Polypeptide
d. Stimulants
2. Caffeine:
a. Is a narcotic
b. Assists glycogen
sparing
c. Decreases
performance
d. Does not have
diuretic properties
Short Answer Question
A distance road cyclist is given the choice of a
legal and illegal ergogenic aid.
a. Why might the cyclist use illegal aids?
b. Why is drug taking considered ‘unethical’?
c. List an example of a legal and illegal aid that
would be specific to distance cycling. Justify
your choices.
d. Why is hydration and nutrition essential to
successful distance cyclists performance
levels?
Multiple Choice Answers
Chapter 7
1.
B
2.
D
Chapter 8
1.
D
2.
C
Chapter 9
1.
A
2.
B
Chapter 10
1.
A
2.
D
Chapter 11
1. C
2. B
Chapter 12
1. A
2. D
Chapter 13
1. A
2. C
Chapter 14
1. A
2. B