Leaving Certificate Chemistry
January 2013
Contents
Senior cycle .............................................................................................................. 1
The experience of senior cycle .............................................................................. 2
Leaving Certificate Chemistry ................................................................................... 5
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 5
Aim........................................................................................................................ 6
Objectives ............................................................................................................. 6
Related learning .................................................................................................... 8
Syllabus Overview ...................................................................................................10
Time allocation .....................................................................................................11
Key skills ..............................................................................................................11
Practical activities .................................................................................................12
Teaching and learning ..........................................................................................13
Information and communications technology (ICT) ...............................................14
Differentiation .......................................................................................................15
Units of Study ..........................................................................................................17
Scientific practices ...............................................................................................19
Unit 1. Properties, structures and bonding ............................................................21
Unit 2. Controlling and using chemical change .....................................................25
Unit 3. Organic chemistry .....................................................................................30
Unit 4. Environmental chemistry ...........................................................................35
Assessment .............................................................................................................38
Assessment components .....................................................................................38
Mathematical requirements ..................................................................................42
Reasonable accommodations ..............................................................................43
Senior cycle
Learners in senior cycle are approaching the end of their time in school and are focusing
on the directions they would like to take in their future lives. Senior cycle plays a vital role
in helping learners to address their current needs as young adults and in preparing them
for life in a changing economic and social context.
Senior cycle is founded on a commitment to educational achievement of the highest
standard for all learners, commensurate with their individual abilities. To support learners
as they shape their own future there is an emphasis on the development of knowledge
and deep understanding; on learners taking responsibility for their own learning; on the
acquisition of key skills; and on the processes of learning. The broad curriculum, with
some opportunities for specialisation, supports continuity from junior cycle and sets out
to meet the needs of learners, some of whom have special educational needs, but who
all share a wide range of learning interests, aptitudes and talents.
The range and scope of the curriculum components offered at senior cycle—subjects,
short courses, transition units and curriculum frameworks—have been developed to
allow for choice and flexibility, for a balance between knowledge and skills, and for the
promotion of the kinds of learning strategies relevant to participation in, and contribution
to, a changing world where the future is uncertain.
Assessment in senior cycle involves gathering, interpreting and using information about
the processes and outcomes of learning. It takes different forms and can be used for a
variety of purposes. It can be used to determine the appropriate route for learners
through a differentiated curriculum, to identify specific areas of difficulty or strength for a
given student and to test and certify achievement. Assessment can support and improve
learning by helping learners and teachers to identify next steps in the teaching and
learning process.
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The experience of senior cycle
The vision of senior cycle sees the learner at the centre of the educational experience.
That experience will enable learners to be resourceful, to be confident, to participate
actively in society, to build an interest in learning and develop an ability to learn
throughout their lives.
This vision of the learner is underpinned by the values on which senior cycle is based
and it is realised through the principles that inform the curriculum as it is experienced by
learners in schools. The curriculum, made up of subjects and courses, embedded key
skills, clearly expressed learning outcomes, and supported by a range of approaches to
assessment, is the vehicle through which the vision becomes a reality for the learner.
At a practical level, the provision of a high quality educational experience in senior cycle
is supported by:

effective curriculum planning, development, organisation and evaluation

teaching and learning approaches that motivate and interest learners, that enable
them to progress, that deepen and apply their learning, and that develop their
capacity to reflect on their learning

professional development for teachers and school management that enables
them to lead curriculum development and change in their schools

a school culture that respects learners, that encourages them to take
responsibility for their own learning over time, and that promotes a love of
learning
Senior cycle education is situated in the context of a broader education policy that
focuses on the contribution that education can make to the development of the learner
as a person and as a citizen. It is an education policy that emphasises the promotion of
social cohesion, the growth of society and the economy, and the principle of
sustainability in all aspects of development.
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Leaving Certificate Chemistry
Introduction
Science education provides a means by which learners can interact with the world
around them and understand how scientific concepts can be used to make sense of the
physical world. As learners’ scientific literacy grows they will be able to make sense of
the various ways in which scientific knowledge is communicated. Science is a human
construct; scientific knowledge is constructed by the sharing of ideas and by developing,
refining, and rejecting or accepting these ideas. Through engagement with science
learners will acquire the knowledge skills, attitudes and values that will allow them to
take informed positions on scientific issues. As well as constructing knowledge of
science they will construct knowledge about science and the nature of science, including
its moral and ethical dimensions. Changes in science education reflect the advances is
science and technology; a greater emphasis is placed on society’s general scientific and
technological literacy and this includes an understanding of socio-scientific issues
including ethical decision making.
Chemistry is the study of matter and its interactions. Many of today’s contemporary
issues require the knowledge and understanding of fundamental chemical principles.
The chemistry syllabus has been designed to develop essential knowledge and
understanding of chemical facts, concepts and principles together with an appreciation of
their significance and the skills needed for their use in new and changing situations.
Learners will draw on their knowledge and understanding of the facts, principles and
concepts from different areas of chemistry to evaluate and use arguments about the
place of chemistry in society. They will develop an appreciation of the significance of
chemistry in personal, social, environmental, economic and technological contexts and
an awareness of advances in technology, including ICT, relevant to chemistry.
Practical skills are seen as an integral accompaniment to theory. Investigation and the
theories that arise from experimentation are central to the study of chemistry. Learners
will develop an understanding of the links between theory and experiment and develop
an understanding of scientific process. The syllabus is designed for all learners; the skills
developed will form part of their lifelong learning and prepare them both for the
workplace and for further studies in chemistry.
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To complete the chemistry syllabus successfully learners will have to develop the ability
to tackle chemical problems using fundamental mathematical skills. Learners will be
expected to understand abstract concepts and to be able to transfer them to new
contexts; they will also be expected to be able to apply skills and strategies of scientific
inquiry to solve physical problems. In participating in practical activities, learners will be
required to manipulate and use tools, equipment and material with due regard for their
own safety and the safety of others.
Aim
Leaving Certificate Chemistry aims to stimulate and sustain learners’ interest in, and
enjoyment of, chemistry while developing an understanding of the fundamental principles
underlying chemical phenomena and illustrating how humanity has benefited from the
study and practice of chemistry.
Objectives
The objectives of Leaving Certificate Chemistry are to enable learners to:

build on their existing knowledge and understanding of chemistry terminology,
facts, principles and methods, and to develop the skills needed to apply this
knowledge and understanding to familiar and unfamiliar situations

develop an understanding of how materials react and how they can be put to use,
and to appreciate the usefulness of chemical products

develop skills in scientific inquiry, including the ability to interpret and analyse
qualitative and quantitative data from different sources and to consider the
validity and reliability of data in presenting and justifying conclusions

develop skills in laboratory procedures and techniques, including the use of ICT,
carried out with due regard for safety, together with the ability to assess the uses
and limitations of these procedures through engagement in a wide variety of
practical activities

develop the ability to discuss, evaluate and communicate the results of their
experimental and investigative activities in verbal, graphical and mathematical
form, using ICT where appropriate

develop a deeper understanding of the ethical, historical, environmental, and
technological aspects of chemistry, and of how chemistry contributes to the social
and economic development of society
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
develop qualities that enable them to make informed conclusions about
contemporary chemical and environmental issues, including those that raise
ethical questions
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Related learning
Leaving Certificate Chemistry provides continuity and progression in science that begins
in learners’ early childhood education, through the primary school curriculum and junior
cycle science.
Early childhood
Aistear, the early childhood curriculum framework, celebrates early childhood as a time
of well-being and enjoyment where children learn from experiences as they unfold.
The theme of Exploring and Thinking is about children making sense of the things,
places and people in their world by interacting with others, playing, investigating,
questioning, and forming, testing and refining ideas.
Children use their senses, their minds and their bodies to find out about and make sense
of what they see, feel and experience in the world around them. They gather information
and develop new skills, including thinking skills. They form ideas and theories and test
these out. They refine their ideas through exploring their environment actively and
through interacting and communicating with adults and with other children. Much of this
happens through play and other experiences that allow children to be creative, to take
risks, and to make discoveries. As they learn they retest their theories, adjusting them to
take on board new discoveries and new experiences.
Primary school
The primary science curriculum supports children in learning about the physical and
biological aspects of the world by developing their skill in two areas: working scientifically
and designing and making. The curriculum recommends that children's ideas should
provide the starting point for science activities and that their learning in science be linked
to everyday activities. Throughout the primary science curriculum, emphasis is placed on
the importance of children learning through practical investigations.
Junior cycle
Junior cycle science places student learning in the context of science activities,
emphasising hands-on engagement through which learners develop their understanding
of the scientific concepts and principles involved together with appropriate science
process skills. This approach provides coherence with science in the Primary School
Curriculum. There is an emphasis on an investigative approach through which learners
develop an understanding and appreciation of activities and processes that are
fundamental to all science together with the ability to apply science principles to their
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everyday lives. Many junior cycle subjects have close links with science, particularly
geography, CSPE, PE, SPHE, home economics and religious education.
Senior cycle chemistry
Learners build on their science process skills and use them to develop deeper
understanding of scientific concepts. Chemistry is not learned in isolation. Many senior
cycle subjects have close links with chemistry, including agricultural science, physics,
biology, geography, home economics, religious education and mathematics. The
knowledge and understanding gained in chemistry can be used in conjunction with that
developed in these other subjects to enrich overall learning. Chemistry by its nature is
quantitative and learners are expected to be able to collect and analyse data, to
generalise and to draw conclusions.
Further study
The chemistry syllabus provides a suitable foundation for the study of chemistry or a
related area through a range of higher education courses or direct entry into
employment. A chemistry qualification can lead to many exciting and rewarding careers.
Apart from pure chemistry, there is a diverse range of opportunities in related areas,
including materials chemistry, biotechnology, biochemistry, medicinal chemistry,
engineering, geochemistry, environmental chemistry and forensic science.
Community and society
Learners will develop an appreciation of the social and cultural perspectives of chemistry
and of the impact of science and technology on people and on the environment. For
example, understanding, and the ability to manipulate, molecules have allowed for the
development of crop-enhancing agricultural chemicals to ensure a constant and viable
food supply; deadly diseases have been eradicated by developing life-saving
pharmaceuticals and chemical pesticides. Chemists also developed plastics and
synthetic fibres for use in both industrial and consumer products. All of these advances
come at some cost to the environment; studying chemistry will assist learners in making
informed decisions about the value of chemistry to society versus the impact of
chemicals on the environment.
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Syllabus Overview
Scientific Practices
Hypothesising
Properties structure
and bonding
Experimenting
Controlling and using
chemical change
Evaluating
evidence
Communicating
Organic chemistry
Environmental
chemistry
Development of
atomic theory
Gas laws
Fundamental
structure of
organic
compounds
Acids and bases
Electronic
structure
Stoichiometry
Physical and
chemical
properties of
hydrocarbons
Water
Bonding
Thermochemistry
Organic
functioinal groups
The atmosphere
Intermolecular
forcess
Rates of reaction
Organic reactions
Green chemistry
Oxidation and
reduction
Chemical
equilibrium
Petrochemical
industry
Nanochemistry
Everyday organic
compounds
Analytical
chemistry
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The chemistry syllabus is divided into units reflecting major branches of chemistry. The
overarching unit, scientific methods, sets the context for the four units that follow. The
course content is gathered into topics on properties, structure and bonding, controlling
and using chemical change, organic chemistry and environmental chemistry.
The syllabus is presented in the form of learning outcomes. The outcomes are
statements of what the learner should know and be able to do having completed
the unit of study. The sequence in which the syllabus learning outcomes are
presented does not imply any particular order of teaching and/or learning. The scientific
methods outlined in the first unit should be applied across all topics in the
following four units.
Time allocation
The chemistry syllabus is designed for 180 hours of class contact time. It is
recommended that some class periods should be timetabled consecutively to ensure at
least one double period per week to facilitate meaningful learner engagement in practical
activities.
Key skills
There are five skills identified as central to teaching and
learning across the curriculum at senior cycle. These
are information processing, being personally effective,
communicating, critical and creative thinking and
working with others. It is important for all learners to
develop these key skills in order to achieve their full
potential, both during their time in school and into the
future and to participate fully in society, including family
life, the world of work and lifelong learning. The syllabus is designed to help learners
develop skills as they build on their knowledge and understanding of chemistry, and to
form positive attitudes to learning. The key skills are embedded within the learning
outcomes of the syllabus and will be assessed in the context of the assessment of the
learning outcomes.
Learners will engage with the fundamental principles and concepts of chemistry through
participation in a wide range of skills-based activities. Participation in these activities will
mirror the work of scientists and enable learners to connect their experiences with the
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theoretical concepts of chemistry. They will build on their knowledge of chemistry
constructed initially through their exploration in science in the Primary School Curriculum
and through their investigations in Junior Certificate Science. They will develop
information processing and critical and creative thinking skills by examining patterns and
relationships, analysing hypotheses, exploring options, solving problems and applying
those solutions to new contexts. They will develop skills in working with others as they
collaborate on investigations and present and communicate their findings. In solving
chemical problems learners will use careful observation, thoughtful analysis and clarity of
expression to evaluate evidence, give their own interpretation of that evidence and make
a clear presentation of their proposed solution. Students will learn how to research up-todate and balanced information that they can use to develop a critical approach to
accepted chemical theories and in so doing come to understand the limitations of
science. Learners will develop the skill of being personally effective as they monitor their
own learning and evaluate their own work.
Practical activities
Learners must complete the practical activities specified in the syllabus.

Experimental activities develop skills in science process, laboratory techniques
and safety procedures. These skills include following experimental procedure,
identifying controls and variables, observing and measuring, collecting and
recording data, analysing data for patterns and meaning, and communicating
results and conclusions.

Open-ended investigation activities develop skills in application of the
strategies of scientific inquiry. These skills include identifying and refining good
inquiry questions, research skills, developing testable hypotheses, initiating and
planning, identifying controls and variables, conducting practical activities and
recording data, analysing and interpreting, problem solving, evaluating results
and communicating conclusions.

Issues investigation activities develop skills in accessing information that has
been previously gathered, selecting the relevant details, analysing that
information for patterns and meaning, identifying bias, evaluating it in light of new
evidence and communicating findings or conclusions.
All forms of practical activity throughout the course develop communication skills.
Although the traditional written report is one form of communication, learners will
describe what they do and what they learn in other formats as well, such as oral
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presentations, poster presentations, computer presentations or video. Through various
formats of co-operative learning, they will discuss, debate, and reflect on their own
thinking and learning. As well as reinforcing the understanding of concepts, principles,
laws, and theories the practical activities will support the development of key skills in a
variety of contexts. The scientific approach, research, interpretation of data and use of
evidence and argument in evaluating information are central to both the practical
activities and the theoretical concepts.
Teaching and learning
Senior cycle learners are encouraged to develop the knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values that will enable them to become independent learners and to develop a lifelong
commitment to improving their learning.
Leaving Certificate chemistry supports the use of a wide range of teaching and learning
approaches. As learners progress they will develop learning strategies that are
transferable across different tasks and different subjects enabling them to make
connections between chemistry, other subjects and everyday experiences. Through
engaging in self-directed activities and reflection learners will assume much of the
responsibility for planning, monitoring and evaluating their own learning and in doing so
will develop a positive sense of their own capacity to learn. By engaging in group work
learners will develop skills in reasoned argument, listening to each other, informing one
another of what they are doing, and reflecting on their own work and that of others.
Learners will integrate their knowledge and understanding of chemistry with the ethical,
social, economic and environmental implications and applications of chemistry.
Increasingly, arguments between scientists are the subject of public and media
comment. By critically evaluating scientific texts and debating public statements about
science learners will engage with contemporary issues in chemistry that affect their
everyday lives. They will learn to interrogate and interpret data—a skill which has a value
far beyond chemistry wherever data are used as evidence to support argument. By
providing an opportunity to examine and debate reports about contemporary issues in
science Leaving Certificate chemistry will enable learners to develop an appreciation of
the social context of science.
The variety of activities that learners engage in will enable them to take charge of their
own learning by setting goals, developing action plans and receiving and responding to
assessment feedback. As well as varied teaching strategies, varied assessment
strategies will support learning and provide information that can be used as feedback so
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that teaching and learning activities can be modified in ways that best suit individual
learners.
Information and communications technology (ICT)
Computer applications should be included in activities whenever they enhance student
learning, for example by enabling students to complete work more efficiently or to
complete work that otherwise could not be done. A wide variety of software tools should
be used to collect, record, analyse and display information. Examples where such tools
should be used include the preparation of reports, spreadsheets, graphics, flow charts,
concept maps, databases, and presentations. Sensors and other suitable hardware
should be used to collect data where appropriate. The portability of laboratory sensor
systems makes them useful for work outside as well as inside the classroom. Software
simulations offer access to science experiments that may be difficult to illustrate in other
ways. Such simulations are easy to relate to and immediately useful. While simulations
may substitute for experiences they should not be used to replace direct experiences
that are safe, ethical, and available.
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Differentiation
Differentiation occurs in three distinct areas: the learning outcomes of the syllabus, the
process of teaching and learning, and assessment.
Learning outcomes
Ordinary Level
Higher Level
Only the learning outcomes that are not
presented in bold type
All learning outcomes including those
Learners engage with a broad range of
Learners engage with a broad range of
knowledge, mainly concrete in nature, but
knowledge including theoretical
with some elements of abstraction or
concepts and abstract thinking with
theory. They will be expected to
significant depth in some areas. They
demonstrate and use a moderate range
will be expected to demonstrate and
of practical and cognitive skills and tools,
use a broad range of specialised skills
select from a range of procedures and
and tools to evaluate and use
apply known solutions to a variety of
information to plan and develop
problems in both familiar and unfamiliar
investigative strategies and to
contexts.
determine solutions to varied, unfamiliar
in bold type
problems. They will be expected to
identify and apply skills and knowledge
in a wide variety of both familiar and
unfamiliar contexts.
Teaching and learning
Learners vary in the amount and type of support they need to be successful. Levels of
demand in any learning activity will differ as learners bring different ideas and levels of
understanding to it. The use of strategies for differentiated learning such as adjusting the
level of skills required, varying the amount and the nature of teacher intervention, and
varying the pace and sequence of learning will allow learners to interact at their own
level.
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Assessment
Leaving Certificate Chemistry will be assessed at two levels, Higher and Ordinary.
Assessment will be based on the learning outcomes in the syllabus. At higher Level,
students will be assessed on all of the learning outcomes including those presented in
bold type. Students at Ordinary Level will be assessed only on those learning outcomes
that are presented in normal type. Examination questions will require candidates to
demonstrate understanding, application, analysis and evaluation appropriate to each
syllabus level. Differentiation at the point of assessment will also be achieved through
the language register of the questions asked, the stimulus material used, and the extent
of the structured support provided for examination candidates at different levels.
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Units of Study
Scientific practices
Unit 1. Properties, structures and bonding
Unit 2. Controlling and using chemical change
Unit 3. Organic chemistry
Unit 4. Environmental chemistry
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Scientific practices
In addition to the ability to understand and apply the concepts, laws and theories of
science, learners will develop skills in scientific methods and learn how to apply them in
a variety of contexts. Through studying Leaving Certificate Chemistry learners will gain
an understanding of the ideas which underpin the collection, analysis and interpretation
of data so that they can handle scientific evidence effectively. In justifying their
conclusions they will consider the validity and reliability of their data and appreciate the
limitations of scientific evidence. As they present their work they will develop skills in
scientific communication and argumentation.
Students learn about
Students should be able to
Hypothesising

use observations as the basis for formulating a
hypothesis

apply their knowledge and understanding of
science to develop arguments or draw
conclusions related to both familiar and unfamiliar
situations

compile and interpret data or other information
gathered from print, laboratory, and electronic
sources, including internet sites, to research a
topic, solve a problem, or support an opinion

make predictions and generalisations based on
available evidence
Experimenting

identify variables and select appropriate controls

design, manage and conduct practical
investigations and also investigations based on
secondary data

collect, organise, interpret, present and analyse
primary and secondary data

describe relationships (qualitatively and/or
quantitatively) between sets of data, recognising
the difference between causation and correlation
Evaluating evidence

*conduct an open ended investigation

critically examine the scientific process that was
used to present a scientific claim

appreciate the limitations of scientific evidence

make judgments and draw informed conclusions
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arising from their own and others’ investigations
and consider the reliability and validity of data

evaluate the ethical issues embedded in scientific
decision making processes
Communicating

communicate the procedures and results of
investigations by displaying evidence and
information in various forms, including flow
charts, tables, graphs, and laboratory reports

*conduct an issues investigation and present their
findings orally
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Unit 1. Properties, structures and bonding
Unit 1 introduces learners to the structure of the atom, the building block of matter. They
learn how the contributions of key scientists have advanced the knowledge of atomic and
molecular theory. They explore the relationship between the position of elements in the
periodic table and their properties. They discover how the properties of compounds are
determined by the type of bonding present. Throughout the unit the relationship between
atomic structure, chemical reactivity and the position that an element occupies in the
periodic table is developed. Learners will also get an introduction to the unique
properties that materials exhibit at the nanoscale and explore the potential that
nanoscale engineering offers to society.
Students learn about
Students should be able to
1.1 Development of atomic

theory
explain the experimental observations and
inferences made by Rutherford and Bohr in
developing the planetary model of the hydrogen
atom

describe the quantum mechanical model of
the atom (orbital and electron probability
density) and the contributions of individuals
to this model, e.g. Planck, de Broglie,
Heisenberg, Einstein and Schrödinger

use the development of atomic theory to illustrate
how experimental evidence informs scientific
theory
1.2 Electronic structure

explain how emission and absorption spectra
arise and how they differ from continuous spectra

use a spectrometer to view the emission spectra,
imparted by a clean Bunsen flame, associated
with the salts of the following metals: K, Na, Cu,
Li, Ba, Sr

identify the s, p, d, and f block elements in the
periodic table

write, using subshell notation, the electron
configuration of an atom or monatomic ion of any
of the first 20 (36) elements in the periodic table

explain trends in first ionisation energy and
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Students learn about
Students should be able to
atomic radius of the s and p block elements
across periods and down groups for the first
36 elements

describe how successive ionisation energy
values provide evidence for the existence of
energy levels

interrelate the chemical properties of elements to
their electronic structure and their placement in
the periodic table
1.3 Bonding

describe and explain valency and bonding in
terms of the attainment of stable electronic
configurations (noble gas configurations) use dot
and cross diagrams

describe bonding in terms of orbital overlap
and distinguish the type of overlap involved
in sigma and pi bonding

explain the trends in electronegativity values
shown across periods and down groups in the
periodic table

relate the chemical and physical properties of
compounds to the types of bonding present

predict polarity in a covalent bond

carry out qualitative tests to determine the
presence of anions (chlorides, iodides, sulfites,
sulfates, carbonates, and hydrogencarbonates)
in aqueous solutions and use these tests to
identify the anion in an unknown salt (half
equations required)

use valence shell electron pair repulsion
(VSEPR) theory to determine and explain the
shape and bond angles of molecules of type ABn
for up to four VSEPR pairs of electrons around a
central atom

draw Lewis structures, construct molecular
models and recall the structural formula of a
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Students learn about
Students should be able to
range of molecules of the form ABn for up to four
VSEPR pairs of electrons around a central atom
1.4 Intermolecular forces

describe, with the aid of diagrams, the range of
intermolecular forces – (i) hydrogen bonding, (ii)
weak permanent dipole-dipole forces, (iii) weak
transient dipole-dipole forces – which collectively
fall under the umbrella of van der Waals’ forces

explain how intermolecular forces can be used to
account for variances in physical phenomena
(solubility, melting point and boiling point)

*investigate the relationship between
intermolecular forces and physical phenomena

Investigate electrical conductivity of salt solutions

distinguish between intermolecular forces and
intramolecular bonding

distinguish between amorphous and crystalline
solids

compare ionic, molecular, covalent,
macromolecular and metallic crystals under the
following headings: (i) species occupying lattice
points, (ii) binding forces, and (iii) physical
properties
1.5 Oxidation and reduction

describe, using simple examples, how oxidation
and reduction can be explained in terms of
electron transfer

explain the terms oxidising agent and reducing
agent

use oxidation numbers to balance redox
equations

describe the process that occurs in an
electrochemical cell

explain what they observe occurring at each
electrode during the electrolysis of:
-
aqueous sodium sulfate (using universal
indicator)
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Students learn about
Students should be able to
-
aqueous potassium iodide (using
phenolphthalein indicator)

write the half equations for the reactions that
occur at the electrodes in the electrolysis of:
-
aqueous sodium sulfate (using universal
indicator)
-
aqueous potassium iodide (using
phenolphthalein indicator)

acidified water
explain corrosion as an electrochemical process
and outline the principles that underpin its
prevention

discuss how the advances in the hydrogen fuel
cell have facilitated the development of electric
cars

discuss the use of fuel cells in everyday
applications
1.6 Nanochemistry

describe the structure and properties of the
allotropes of carbon (diamond, graphite,
buckyball, carbon nanotubes)

distinguish between nanoscience, and
nanotechnology

relate the application of nanoscience to other
areas of chemistry, e.g. rates of chemical
reactions, atomic theory

evaluate the impact of one area of nanoscience
in an everyday application, e.g. health, materials
technology, environment

discuss potential applications of carbon
nanotubes
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Unit 2. Controlling and using chemical change
In this unit learners will explore how the kinetic theory of gases led to the concept of the
mole. They will learn about energy changes in chemical reactions, the factors which
influence the rate of chemical reactions and how optimal conditions can be achieved in
equilibrium reactions. Students will explore how scientists put this knowledge to work in
the chemical industry as they consider ways in which adjustment of conditions may be
used to favour particular, desired, chemical outcomes.
Students learn about
2.1 Gas laws
Students should be able to
 discuss the assumptions of the kinetic theory of
gases and the evidence for this theory

use the kinetic theory model to explain the solid,
liquid and gaseous states of matter and the
changes that occur during melting and
vaporisation

explain what is meant by an ideal gas and
account for the deviation of real gases from ideal
gas behaviour

explain Boyle's law and Charles's law in terms of
the kinetic theory

solve problems using:
-
combined gas law (general gas law)
-
equation of state for an ideal gas
(units: Pa, m2, K)

determine experimentally, the value of the
Universal Gas Constant (R)
2.2 Stoichiometry

Explain how the laws proposed by Gay-Lussac
and Avogadro led to the application of
stoichiometry to gaseous reactions

explain the concept of the mole as it applies to
electrons, atoms, molecules, ions, and in
formulas and equations

balance equations for unfamiliar reactions where
reactants and products are specified

carry out calculations involving relative atomic
masses, relative molecular masses, relative
25
Students learn about
Students should be able to
formula masses, molar volumes and Avogadro’s
constant

carry out calculations using the mole
concept to determine:
-
numbers of moles and masses of
reactants and products
-
volumes of gases
-
exact stoichiometric amounts
-
limiting reagent
-
percentage yields (these calculations
limited to g and kg as units of mass
and may include volumes and
numbers of molecules or atoms)

carry out calculations to determine percentage
composition of compounds and use these data
to determine empirical formulae and molecular
formulae

convert concentrations from one unit to another
(g/L, mol/L, %w/w, %w/v, %v/v, and ppm)

*prepare stock solutions of a coloured compound
and use them to construct a calibration curve
with the aid of a colorimeter; use the calibration
curve to determine the concentration of a
solution of this compound

explain the terms primary standard and standard
solution

explain the procedure involved in carrying out a
titration

* prepare a standard solution of sodium
carbonate and use this solution to determine the
concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid

* determine the concentration of ethanoic acid in
vinegars, iron in iron supplements and
hypochlorite in bleaches, by titrimetric method

26
perform titrimetric calculations limited to: (i)
Students learn about
Students should be able to
acid/base titration, and (ii) redox titration where
all necessary equations and data are supplied
2.3 Thermochemistry

compare the energy changes resulting from
bond breaking and bond forming; relate these
changes to endothermic and exothermic
reactions

explain the terms enthalpy, heat of reaction, heat
of combustion, heat of formation, heat of
neutralisation, calorific fuel value and bond
energy

write balanced equations for the complete
combustion of hydrocarbons (up to and including
molecules containing 10 carbon atoms)

* determine the enthalpy change in a reaction
experimentally

calculate enthalpy changes from experimental
data for reactions including:

-
neutralisation
-
combustion
-
solution
use bond energy values to quantitatively predict
the enthalpies of reaction

interpret calorific values of fuels including foods

describe examples of technologies that depend
on exothermic and endothermic reactions in
everyday life

analyse simple energy profile diagrams of
chemical reactions

state the law of conservation of energy

explain the relationship of the law of
conservation of energy to Hess’s law

use Hess’s law to determine enthalpy
changes for chemical reactions (no more
than three chemical equations in any one
problem)
27
Students learn about
2.4 Rates of reaction
Students should be able to
 define rate of reaction

use experimental data to determine
average and instantaneous rates of reaction

explain in terms of the collision theory how
concentration, particle size, temperature, and
nature of reactants affect the rate of a reaction

* investigate the effect of concentration or
temperature on the rate of a reaction

explain the term catalyst

demonstrate homogenous and heterogeneous
catalysis experimentally

use appropriate examples to explain how
homogeneous and, heterogeneous catalysis
occur

describe the operation of catalytic converters in
cars (include the nature and type of catalyst and
the reactions catalysed)

relate the collision theory to the kinetic theory of
gases

identify activation energy from energy profile
diagrams; explain how the presence of a
catalyst modifies a reaction profile diagram

describe and interpret the Boltzmann
distribution curve and relate this to activation
energy
2.5 Chemical equilibrium

describe the dynamic nature of a chemical
system at equilibrium

predict, using Le Chatelier’s principle, the
direction in which a system at equilibrium will
shift when volume, pressure, concentration or
temperature is changed (application limited to
homogeneous reactions)

* demonstrate Le Chatelier’s principle
experimentally

28
write an expression for the equilibrium constant
Students learn about
Students should be able to
Kc for a given chemical process and explain the
factors that affect the value of Kc

calculate values for equilibrium constants Kc
and concentrations present at equilibrium
given appropriate data
29
Unit 3. Organic chemistry
Organic compounds constitute a vast range of materials with diverse properties. These
materials include living systems, petroleum and synthetic materials such as drugs,
medicines and plastics. The unique nature of organic compounds is due to the ability of
carbon’s atoms to bond together by single, double and triple bonds to form a wide range
of compounds containing chains and rings.
In this unit learners will examine organic reactions in terms of the influence that structure,
bonding and reactive centres have on the likelihood of a chemical reaction taking place.
They will see how the introduction of atoms of elements such as oxygen and nitrogen
creates polarity in the bonding within the organic compound, which in turn has significant
effect on the types of reactions the molecule undergoes. Learners will apply their
understanding to make logical predictions of organic reactivity. Learners will examine the
way in which analytical techniques are used in everyday life to distinguish between, and
determine the molecular formulae and structures of, organic compounds.
[In order to successfully complete this unit students should have covered bonding
(covalent, hydrogen, sigma and pi), electronegativity, and the states of matter (what
occurs during boiling and melting). The families of organic compounds studied in this unit
are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, arenes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids,
esters, and amines.]
Students learn about
3.1 Fundamental structure of
organic compounds
Students should be able to

construct 3 dimensional models of hydrocarbon
molecules and interrelate them with 2
dimensional drawings and their condensed
formula (limited to 6 carbons

explain the concept of isomerism in organic
compounds

describe how double bonds, triple bonds and
isomers influence the spatial arrangement of the
3 dimensional molecules they have constructed

differentiate between structural and geometrical
(cis /trans) isomerism.
recognise the significance of the geometric
arrangement of organic molecules to their
function (i.e. cis-trans fats, pheromones)
30
Students learn about
Students should be able to
3.2. Physical and chemical
properties of hydrocarbons

explain the bonding and account for the shapes
of ethane, ethene and ethyne (aliphatic) and
benzene molecules (aromatic) in terms of sigma
and pi bonds

predict differences in physical properties (b.p.
solubility in water) of straight chain and
branched chain hydrocarbon molecules (up to
C6), using relative molecular mass,
intermolecular forces and the shape of the
molecule to rationalise their prediction

identify the location of the electrons within the
bonds of the molecules above and explain how
this determines if addition or substitution
reactions are favoured with different chain
lengths and branching
3.3 Organic functional groups

interpret and use the terms homologous series
and functional group

apply IUPAC rules for nomenclature

For those molecules that contain the following
functional groups: -OH, =O, -COOH, -COO,
Halides, or -NH2

use electronegativity to predict bond polarisation
leading to identification of sites that are
electron rich and electron deficient

predict the physical properties of these
molecules (i.e. solubility in water, relative bp)

predict the reactivity i.e. the reactive centres
and the products formed in the presence of
electron rich and electron poor reagents.

conduct practical activities to distinguish (i)
saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons (ii)
aldehydes (to include reducing sugars) and
ketones (iii) pure and impure solid compounds
3.4 Organic reactions

explain the terms (i) addition reaction. (ii)
substitution reaction (iii) elimination reaction (iv)
31
Students learn about
Students should be able to
condensation reaction and (v) redox reaction
with respect to organic chemistry

describe the mechanism of electrophilic addition
in alkenes (ethene only)

describe and evaluate the experimental
evidence which supports this mechanism

describe how the oxidation of alcohols to
aldehydes proceeds by the elimination of
hydrogen atoms and the further oxidation of
aldehydes to acids proceeds by the addition of
oxygen

use the dehydration of ethanol to describe an
elimination reaction

discuss how the formation of an ester may be
described as a condensation reaction and also
as a substitution reaction

describe the mechanism of free radical
substitution in the chlorination of methane

describe and evaluate the experimental
evidence which supports this mechanism

discuss the limitations of free radical
substitution

Conduct a practical activity to prepare ethene by
dehydration of ethanol and examine the
properties of unsaturation and combustion
3.5 Petrochemical industry

discuss the use of crude oil as a source of
hydrocarbons; describe in outline its separation
by fractional distillation into useful fractions
which can be used as fuels or for processing
into petrochemicals

explain the term octane number in terms of fuel
efficiency

explain how reference hydrocarbons are used to
calculate octane ratings

32
discuss methods used by the petroleum industry
Students learn about
Students should be able to
to improve the octane number of fuels;
i.e.catalytic cracking, isomerisation, reforming
(dehydrocyclisation) and the use of oxygenates
to promote efficient combustion
3.6 Everyday organic
compounds
(i) Polymers

distinguish between natural and synthetic
polymers

discuss the application of polymers in today’s
society

outline the use of alkenes in the industrial
production of organic compounds i.e. the
hydrogenation of alkene compounds in the
manufacture of food; the formation of a range of
polymers using unsaturated monomer units
based on ethene or ethene derivatives

discuss the reasons to develop waste
management strategies to deal with nonbiodegradable polymers (refer to both land fill
and incineration)
(ii) Bioactive molecules

explain what a pharmaceutical is

recognise the importance of functional groups in
determining biological activity in pharmaceuticals

describe the reaction involved in the synthesis of
aspirin
(iii) Surfactants

explain how a surfactant works

discuss the applications of surfactants in
everyday life

carry out a practical activity to make a surfactant
using base catalysed hydrolysis of an ester
3.7 Analytical chemistry

outline the role of analytical chemistry in
everyday life and in forensic criminal
investigation

outline the principle and processes involved in
thin layer chromatography

carry out an activity that includes method
development (i.e. solvent choice) to distinguish
33
Students learn about
Students should be able to
organic compounds using Thin Layer
Chromatography

outline the principle and processes involved
in mass spectrometry

interpret mass spectrometry data of simple
organic compounds

demonstrate its use in determining the
structure and molecular mass of a
compound

conduct an activity to extract a natural product
by steam distillation
34
Unit 4. Environmental chemistry
The enhanced greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion, acid rain and the addition and
extraction of substances to our rivers and oceans, have influenced the composition of
the atmosphere and caused changes to water tables. Understanding the impacts of
these interventions requires knowledge of a wide range of chemical processes. In this
unit learners will discuss the importance of developing solutions to the environmental
problems caused by human intervention. They will explore how the chemical industry
uses the principles of green chemistry in the design, manufacture and application of
chemical products to reduce the impact that chemical processes have on the
environment.
Students learn about
Students should be able to
4.1 Acids and bases

use Brønsted-Lowry theory to identify species
acting as acids and bases in chemical
processes (limited to aqueous solutions)

apply acid base theory to identify conjugate
acid/base pairs from appropriate equations

distinguish between (i) weak and strong (ii)
concentrated and dilute acids and bases

compare the behaviour of strong and weak
acids and bases using the concept of
equilibrium

explain how acid/base indicators function

discuss the importance of acids, bases and
neutralisation in our everyday lives

deduce the expression 𝐊𝐰 = [𝐇+] [𝐎𝐇−]
from the self-ionisation of water and explain
how its value varies with temperature

define pH as – 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [H+] and understand its
limitations.

calculate the pH of (i) dilute aqueous solutions
of strong acids and base and (ii) dilute
aqueous solutions of weak acids and bases
using appropriate Ka and Kb values

conduct an activity to generate and interpret
the following pH curves obtained by pH
sensors and datalogging software: (i) strong
acid-strong base, (ii) strong acid-weak base

explain the choice of a suitable indicator to
35
Students learn about
Students should be able to
accurately determine the end point of an
acid/base titration
4.2 Water
4.3 The atmosphere
36

conduct an activity to monitor the changes in
pH when a solution of acid of know
concentration undergoes serial dilution

explain what is meant by a buffer solution

discuss the importance of buffer solutions
in living systems

conduct an activity to investigate the
changes in the pH of the solution when
known amounts of strong acid and strong
base are added to a buffer solution
explain the term hardness in relation to water
and distinguish between temporary and
permanent hardness


outline the processes involved in the large
scale treatment of potable water and of
domestic sewage

explain the concept of Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD) and discuss how BOD
values are used

calculate biochemical oxygen demand.

discuss how pollution affects BOD values
and explain the consequences

conduct activities to determine the quality of a
sample of water
- identification of common ions
- total dissolved and suspended solids
- hardness(quantitative)
- acidity

discuss the challenges facing society resulting
from increased requirements for water and
better sewage treatment
explain the enhanced greenhouse effect and
discuss how this effect has environmental
implications for the Earth


debate the relationship between global
temperature and the proportion of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere.

explain the measures being employed in
Students learn about
4.4 Green chemistry
Students should be able to

Ireland to reduce atmospheric pollution.
discuss the ethical issues involved in chemical
processes using the principles of green
chemistry

describe the benefits of developing chemical
processes with a high atom economy in terms
of fewer waste materials

explain how equilibrium principles can be
applied to optimize the production of ammonia
by the Haber process

discuss the importance of developing catalysts
(including enzymes) to reduce the economic
and environmental cost of an industrial process

carry out calculations to determine the atom
economy of a reaction
37
Assessment
Assessment for certification is based on the aim, objectives and learning outcomes of
this syllabus. Differentiation at the point of assessment is achieved through examinations
at two levels – Ordinary Level and Higher Level.
Assessment components
There are two assessment components at each level: Total marks 600

terminal written examination (70%) 280 marks

assessment of practical work (30%) 120 marks
Both components of assessment reflect the relationship between practical work and the
theoretical content of the syllabus.
Terminal written examination
The terminal written examination paper has two sections – A and B.
Section A (80 marks) consists of multiple choice questions that address core chemistry
topics, with a focus on concepts and skills rather than on recall of facts.
Section B (200 marks) includes a range of question types that address:

knowledge and recall of chemistry facts

application of chemistry knowledge and understanding from different areas of
the syllabus to familiar and unfamiliar situations

planning of experimental and investigative work and analysis and evaluation
of data

ability to assess the validity, reliability and credibility of scientific information

problem solving based on integration, analysis and evaluation of qualitative
and quantitative information and data

capacity to form reasonable and logical argument based on evidence—clarity
and coherence in argument, management of ideas
General assessment criteria for the written examination
A high level of achievement in this component is characterised by a thorough knowledge
and understanding of chemistry facts, principles, concepts and methods from the whole
syllabus and with few significant omissions. Candidates consistently apply their
knowledge and understanding of chemistry to problem solving in both familiar and new
contexts. They accurately analyse and evaluate qualitative and quantitative data from
different sources; manipulation of data is almost flawless. Candidates present logical
arguments and ideas that are clearly based on evidence.
38
A moderate level of achievement in this component is characterised by a good
knowledge and understanding of chemistry facts, principles, concepts and methods from
many parts of the syllabus. Candidates apply their knowledge and understanding of
chemistry to problem solving in familiar contexts and in some new contexts using
appropriate scientific terminology. They carry out adequate levels of analysis and
evaluation on qualitative and quantitative data from different sources; much of their
manipulation of data is correct. Candidates present arguments and ideas which, in the
main, are based on evidence.
A low level of achievement in this component is characterised by a limited knowledge
and understanding of chemistry facts, principles, concepts and methods. Candidates
select appropriate facts and principles to solve problems concerning familiar material
using a limited range of scientific terminology. They carry out basic manipulation of data
using straightforward mathematics. Candidates present some explanations based on
evidence from familiar contexts, though they may include irrelevant material.
Assessment of practical work
The assessment of practical work comprises two parts:

laboratory journal (5%) 30 marks

practical examination (25%) 150 marks
Laboratory journal
Students must carry out and report on the experiments and investigations specified by
an * in the syllabus. Over the two years of the course, each student is required to
maintain a journal in which a record of these experiments and investigations is kept
according to specified criteria. The journal, which may be a multimedia product, must be
retained for the period of the course. 30 marks (5% of the total) are awarded on a prorata basis for the completion of the activities listed below. The journal is not directly
assessed but must be available for inspection by the State Examinations Commission if
required.
The journal must include

reports on the learning outcomes marked with an *

at least one open ended investigation which includes:
o
designing and performing an experiment to test a hypothesis
o
displaying and interpreting results
o
evaluating the investigation and suggesting improvements
o
identifying and explaining the source of errors
o
formulating a conclusion and making relevant predictions
39
o
describing and explaining safety considerations
Students should work collaboratively on the open ended investigation.

one issues investigation which includes
o
an introduction that explains the chemistry issue investigated
o
relevant chemical background for the issue
o
the identification of alternate views
o
an explanation of the perspectives of the issue
o
an evaluation of the information gathered
o
a summary of results or findings and conclusions drawn
o
citations and a reference list
Students work collaboratively on the issues investigation. It should be communicated by
an oral presentation of approximately 10 minutes duration.
Practical examination
The practical examination is laboratory based and focuses on the following experimental
skills:

handling of apparatus, collection of data and observations

presentation and interpretation of data and observations

analysis, conclusion and evaluation of data and observations
Candidates complete 3 set tasks that include qualitative, quantitative and evaluative
procedures. The knowledge and theory of experimental skills are drawn from within the
syllabus; the contexts for the setting of tasks are not bound by the syllabus content.
Within unfamiliar contexts, candidates are told exactly what to do and how to do it.
Candidates are required to follow instructions, to make observations and collect data.
They use these observations and data to analyse, evaluate and make deductions.
Candidates record their observations, data and deductions on a task sheet which is
marked by the State Examinations Commission.
General assessment criteria for the practical examination
A high level of achievement in this component is characterised by demonstration of a
comprehensive range of manipulative techniques in experimental activities. Candidates
make and record observations and measurements with a high level of accuracy and
precision. In almost all cases candidates recognise and describe trends and patterns in
data and use chemistry knowledge and understanding to account for inconsistencies and
anomalies. Candidates accurately interpret and analyse experimentally derived data;
manipulation of the data is almost flawless. In all cases candidates link theoretical
concepts to interpretation of experimental evidence.
40
Candidates complete all of the prescribed practical activities carried out over the two
years.
A moderate level of achievement in this component is characterised by demonstration of
a good range of manipulative techniques in experimental activities. Candidates make
and record observations and measurements with some accuracy and precision. In most
cases candidates recognise and describe trends and patterns in data and in the main
use chemistry knowledge and understanding to account for inconsistencies and
anomalies. Candidates’ interpretation and analysis of experimentally derived data is
generally accurate; much of their manipulation of the data is correct. In some cases
candidates link theoretical concepts to interpretation of experimental evidence.
Candidates complete most of the prescribed practical activities carried out over the two
years.
A low level of achievement in this component is characterised by demonstration of a
limited range of manipulative techniques in experimental activities. There may be
evidence of inaccuracy in measurement and recording of observations. Candidates fail to
recognise, and generally do not account for, inconsistencies and anomalies. They show
limited ability to interpret and analyse experimentally derived data; there may be
significant levels of error in the manipulation of data. Candidates do not link theoretical
concepts to interpretation of experimental evidence.
Candidates complete few or none of the prescribed practical activities carried out over
the two years.
41
Mathematical requirements
The mathematical requirements for Ordinary Level and for Higher Level are outlined
below. Bold text is for Higher Level only.
1. Use of calculators
Candidates are expected to have an appropriate electronic calculator for use during the
course and when answering the examination paper.
In carrying out calculations candidates should be advised to show clearly all expressions
that have been evaluated using a calculator. The number of significant figures given in
the answer to a numerical problem should match the number of significant figures given
in the question.
2. Mathematical requirements
Arithmetic
Candidates should be able to:

understand the concept of significant figures

recognise and use significant figures as appropriate

recognise and use expressions in decimal and standard form (scientific)
notation

recognise and use prefixes indicating multiplication by 10-12, 10-9, 10-6, 10-3, 103,
106, 109

use an electronic calculator for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
and for finding arithmetic means, reciprocals, squares, square roots,
exponentials, logarithms and their inverses

make approximate evaluations of numerical expressions and use such
approximations to check calculations performed with a calculator
Algebra
Candidates should be able to:

change the subject of an equation

solve simple algebraic equations

substitute for physical quantities in physical equations using consistent units

formulate simple algebraic equations as mathematical models of physical
situations

comprehend and use the symbols >, <, , =, x , x
Graphs
Candidates should be able to:
42

translate information between numerical, algebraic, verbal and graphical forms

select appropriate variables and scales for graph plotting

determine the slope of a linear graph and allocate appropriate units to it

choose by inspection a straight line that will serve as the best straight line
through a set of data presented graphically
Reasonable accommodations
The scheme of Reasonable Accommodations is designed to assist candidates with
special needs at the Certificate examinations. The term special needs applies to
candidates who have physical/medical and/or specific learning difficulties.
Reasonable accommodations are designed to remove as far as possible the impact of a
disability on a candidate’s performance, so that he or she can demonstrate in an
examination his or her level of achievement – they are not designed to compensate for a
possible lack of achievement arising from a disability.
Applications for reasonable accommodations are considered within a published
framework of principles (Expert Advisory Group Report – January 2000) and are
submitted by the school which a candidate attends on prescribed application forms.
Applications are normally invited one year in advance of the examination concerned.
43