Deviance
What is the first thing that comes to
your mind when you hear, “deviance”
or “deviants”? How would you define
deviant behavior?
Why is it important to study social
deviance?
Sociological View of Deviance
* Deviance is much more than a personal characteristic.
* Deviance can be viewed as a form of social conflict.
Power, then, is an important resource – e.g., the power
of deviants to engage in non-normative behaviors
undetected; or the power of some groups in society to
create rules for others and to label others.
(e.g., “Moral entrepreneurs”)
* Nothing is inherently deviant – there always has to be some
social comparison.
* Deviance can be understood in terms of choice, selection,
and purpose.
* Diversity is often labeled deviance.
What is often the first line of defense against deviance?
REPUDIATION (the attempt to maintain that nothing terribly unusual is
happening).
Forms:
1. Bracketing
2. Normalization
3. Attenuation
4. Balancing
What if repudiation doesn’t work? One may give ACCOUNTS.
Next, the individual is recognized as a doer of
banned behavior - i.e., what follows is LABELING.
3 Basic Ways Individuals Can Respond to Labeling:
1. Accept label as warranted.
2. Fight label.
3. Benefit from label.
WHO IS ON THE SIDE OF THE DEVIANT?
“the own” and “the wise”
4 TYPES OF STIGMA:
1. abominations of body
2. blemishes of character
3. tribal stigma
4. courtesy stigma
STRATEGIES TO MANAGE STIGMA:
• try to hide or change
• learn to live with it
Describe an instance when you (or
someone you know) was defined as
“deviant”.
What norm(s) had been violated?
What were the consequences?
Who was the “enforcer”? What gave this
person the right (or power) to define this
individual as deviant?
The Functionalist Perspective
Deviance is viewed as contributing to the social order.
Deviance is functional because it strengthens the
bonds of an existing social order – i.e., it promotes
social solidarity.
>> Other functions?
Merton’s Strain Theory
Relationship between cultural goals and
legitimate, structural means to achieve goals:
Goals
+
+
+/-
Means
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+
+/-
Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory
Deviance is learned in interaction with others.
The learning includes techniques and
rationalizations.
(Akers added the role of reinforcement –
one will engage in deviant behaviors
if a reward is expected).
Control Theory
Deviant acts result when one’s bond to
society is weak or broken.
Hirschi identified 4 dimensions of social
bonding:
1. attachment
2. commitment
3. involvement
4. beliefs
Labeling Theory
What is defined as deviance? Who is defined as
deviant?
Lemert –
“primary deviance” = behavior that violates
a social norm but that does not affect
one’s sense of self
“secondary deviance” = norm violation that is a response to
the problems caused by the societal reaction to
primary deviance
Becker – deviance as a “master status”
Braithwaite –
“reintegrative shaming” = moral disapproval
followed by efforts to bring offender back into
the community
(Consistent with Restorative Justice)
“disintegrative shaming” = both the offense
and offender are labeled deviant
Sykes & Matza’s Neutralization Theory
The line between conformity and deviance is not
always clear.
Techniques of neutralization:
1. denial of responsibility
2. denial of injury
3. denial of victim
4. condemnation
5. appeal to higher loyalties
Deviance in Academe
Students - Cheating in college; e.g., plagiarism,
copying others’ work, fabricating bibliography (OTHER
EXAMPLES?)
Students use techniques of neutralization to
justify the act of cheating.
Faculty – in research: plagiarism, stretching the value of
academic work, referee process, human subjects;
in teaching: failure to update course materials,
over-evaluation of students (OTHER EXAMPLES?)
The Social Disorganization Perspective (or The “Chicago School”)
Deviance can be explained by looking at the structure of the
environment. Deviance is a natural by-product of rapid social
change – the normative web of society is stripped of its power to
control people (this is “social disorganization”).
Two by-products of disorganization:
1. In the short term, there is movement in the direction of deviance.
2. In the long term, there is movement in the direction of
normative reorganization.
Urbanization refers to the process of growing concentrations of
people in cities.
Urbanism refers to the cluster of qualities and characteristics that
distinguish the city from rural areas.
6 characteristics of urban life that are conducive to deviance:
1. Norm Conflicts
2. Rapid Cultural Change
3. Mobility
4. Materialism
5. Individualism
6. Increase in formal social controls
SOCIAL CONTROL – DELIBERATE ATTEMPTS TO
CHANGE BEHAVIOR
2 BASIC PROCESSES OF SOCIAL CONTROL:
1. The internalization of group norms (comes
through socialization)
2. External pressures in the form of sanctions
(negative and positive; formal and informal)
COMMON INSTITUTIONS OF SOCIAL CONTROL:
Institution Agent
Religion
Business
Political State
Family
Deviance
Sanction
DISCUSSION QUESTION:
In what ways might social control agencies contribute
to deviance problems?
Street Crime Offenders (general or typical profile)…
Minority males with limited economic opportunity
Living in poverty
Having fragmented links to institutions of
informal social control
Socialized into criminal activities
Street Crime Victims – those who fit the profile of the
offender are also those who are the most likely to
experience victimization (poor, unemployed, minority,
male, young)
For the most part, police work is reactive
(i.e., a reaction to crime that has already
occurred), rather than proactive (i.e., preventing
crime from occurring or stopping crime in
progress)
WHY? WHAT COULD CHANGE THIS?
THE UNIFORM CRIME REPORTS’ CRIME INDEX INCLUDES
8 OFFENSES:
1. Homicide
2. Forcible Rape
3. Robbery
4. Aggravated Assault
5. Burglary
6. Larceny-Theft
7. Motor Vehicle Theft
8. Arson
THE UCR HOME PAGE IS FOUND AT:
http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr.htm
Sources used to measure crime:
official record data
victim survey data
self-report crime survey data
WHAT ARE SOME PROBLEMS IN THESE
DATA?
Motives behind drug dealing:
Financial gain, greed, addiction to the lifestyle
Mechanics of drug dealing:
Good business sense
Keen judge of character
Good reputation among dealers and smugglers
IN WHAT WAYS ARE DRUG DEALERS LIKE OTHER
BUSINESS PEOPLE IN CONVENTIONAL TYPES OF
JOBS?
Rape and Sexual Assault
Home as a “comfort zone” – what does this mean?
Victims’ Coping Strategies may include “forgetting”
and “minimizing”
Explanations of rape:
The social organization of rape (consider common
rape myths: rape is impossible; rape is perpetrated
by a stranger; rape is victim-precipitated).
Gender socialization – consider how males and
females are socialized. Rape as expressed through
traditional gender roles of male domination and
female subordination.
The address for my website, from
which the PowerPoint slides are
available:
http://www.d.umn.edu/~jwilson2/
Approaches for understanding aggressive/violent behavior:
Freud’s Instinct Theory – We have an innate urge
to destroy. Hostile impulses are released.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis –
When we are frustrated, we become motivated to aggress.
Arousal Transfer Model of Aggression – Arousal in one situation can
be transferred to a second situation and the behavior is
exaggerated.
Cultural Explanations – Consider the cultural acceptance of
violence (e.g., glorifying violence). Also, consider social
structural factors (e.g., unequal distribution of opportunities).
Focus on youth violence
Why does it occur? Why is there so much anger?
Consider the family fabric – the family is no longer
necessarily a “safe place”.
James Garbarino is a national expert on youth violence. He says
that kids who commit violent acts are typically at the first level in
Kohlberg’s moral development classification system.
What can adults do to protect kids from negative moral
development, and teach them good moral sense?
Stimulate the development of empathy; protect kids from degrading,
dehumanizing, and desensitizing images; support kids’ spiritual
development (involvement in a non-punitive religious institution).
Questions for Consideration and Discussion:
1. Should children who commit violent
acts be held responsible for their
actions?
2. Is it fair to treat juvenile criminals as adults?
3. What should the response to juvenile violence be:
treatment or punishment (or some combination,
or something else)?
4. How can juvenile violence be prevented?
White-Collar Crime – deviance “in the suites”
* Harmful to individuals outside the organization.
* Furthers aims of corporation.
* Supported or tolerated by top execs.
* New employees are encouraged to participate in the
deviance.
Types of White-Collar Crime:
crimes against the company
crimes against employees
crimes against customers
crimes against general public
[FOR EACH, CONSIDER EXAMPLES AND RATIONALIZATIONS]
What makes white-collar crime likely?
* Structure of corporations – economic power;
workers may feel a lack of responsibility.
* Imperialism – corporations look for cheap labor and natural
resources and end up exploiting people and land.
* Executives may use techniques that make them look innocent –
e.g., denial of harm, appeal to necessity, transfer of
responsibility, entitlement.
* Reflection of society – some groups have the power to ensure that
their activities are not defined as crimes; laws may not be
enforced.
What kinds of safety violations does the McWane
Corporation commit and what are the consequences
for workers? What rationale is given for these
violations?
How does Worker’s Compensation end up protecting
the company?
Why hasn’t anything changed?
Drug use as deviance – 4 aspects of chemical
substances:
*psychoactive
*recreational dimension
*illegality
*public definition
What are some explanations for substance use?
*Alleviation of pain
*Getting high
*Relief of tension, anxiety, or boredom
*Source of identity
*Peer pressure
*Expression of defiance
*Increased endurance, concentration, perceived skill
*Release inhibitions
*Lose control/responsibility
*Expression of self-destructive tendencies
*Religious purposes – a search for the sacred?
The Illegality of Drugs
1875 – San Francisco passed a city ordinance banning the
smoking of opium, primarily as a tool against Chinese laborers.
Laws that make drug use “deviance” serve to symbolize the
moral superiority of members of the dominant culture.
Drug use will be transformed into deviance when it threatens
the capitalist system.
Transforming drug use into deviance serves to legitimize
surveillance in the workplace.
What has been U.S. society’s reaction to drug use?
What are some alternatives?
Arguments for legalization?
Consider the experiences of Marc Emery, “the Prince of
Pot”
http://www.cannabisculture.com/articles/4639.html
THE SOCIAL DRUGS:
Tobacco
*The smoker as “deviant”?
Caffeine
*Think about what an important symbol
coffee is in American culture.
Alcohol
*Identify powerful social and economic forces
that encourage people to drink.
*Consider alcohol’s toll.
*Consider the medicalization of alcoholism.
What are some implications? What about alternative
views of addiction? (e.g., Stanton Peele)
Are addictions a function of the brain,
or are they bad habits?
Stanton Peele defines
addiction as a pattern of
behavior and experience which
is best understood by
examining an individual’s
relationship with his/her world.
Implications of this view:
addiction is not a medical
problem; addiction is not
unusual.
“Harm Reduction” – Instead of
trying to eliminate illegal drugs,
we can focus on limiting the
damage that some people do
to themselves and others as a
result of abusing drugs.
Key techniques of Harm Reduction Therapy:
Accept and respond to improvement.
Humility (vs. perfectionism) is a clinical skill.
Therapists need to realize that change takes time.
Learning to take care of oneself is a skill.
Peele advocates “motivational interviewing” – i.e., the
therapist prompts the individual to reflect on his/her
drinking in terms of his/her own values and goals.
Mental Disorder
Difficult to define. We could contrast it with “mental
health,” but how do we define that??
Let’s define mental disorder as an extreme condition that
makes a person incapable of functioning in daily life.
“Residual rule breaking” (Scheff) – Behaviors which:
a. violate social norms,
b. don’t fall within a specific category
c. could lead to being labeled as mentally ill
David Rosenhan (1973) – “On Being Sane in
Insane Places”
Can the sane be distinguished from the insane?
“Pseudopatients” gained admission to
psychiatric wards and then acted “normally.”
Staff interpreted their behaviors through the
“mentally ill” label.
This experiment demonstrated the power of the
label.
One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975)
(based on Ken Kesey’s 1962 novel)
Questions to consider:
Evaluate the therapy sessions and the “daily routine.”
Who defines the situation?
Why would people who aren’t committed to a mental
hospital stay there anyway?
Does it appear that the concept, “self-fulfilling prophecy,” is
relevant in this movie? If so, in what way?
DICA – Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in
Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence:
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder – Inattention,
impulsiveness, hyperactivity. Symptoms: fidgeting,
impatience, etc.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder – Violations of informal
norms. Symptoms: short temper, defiance.
Eating Disorders – Pica and rumination disorder.
Tic Disorders – Involuntary, rapid motor movements.
Elimination Disorders – Defecation and urination
into places not appropriate.
Identity Disorder – Distress over long-term goals,
friendship patterns, sexual orientation,
religious identification.
Reactive Attachment Disorder – Condition resulting
from abuse or neglect. Difficulty relating to others.
ARE ALL OF THESE CONDITIONS REALLY ‘ILLNESSES’?
UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES MIGHT THESE BEHAVIORS BE
CONSIDERED NORMATIVE?
WITH RESPECT TO THESE CONDITIONS, WHAT IS THE ROLE OF…
THE FAMILY?
EXPOSURE TO MEDIA?
SOCIAL CONTROL?
Suicide
Review Durkheim’s study of suicide – e.g., what is the relationship
between religion and suicide?
Durkheim asserted that there are two crucial relationships an
individual has with his/her environment – how integrated one is and
how regulated. He argued that suicide is most likely to occur when
the social ties that bind people to one another are too weak or too
strong.
He identified four types of suicide:
altruistic – Associated with high integration.
egoistic – Associated with low integration.
fatalistic – Associated with excessive regulation.
anomic – Associated with not enough regulation.
Suicide
How do we know if it was a suicide?
The recording of a death as a suicide is
complicated by possible sources of error:
1. Concealment by social groups who
vary in their condemnation of
suicide.
2. Misclassification by coroners and
medical examiners.
What are some clues that it was a suicide?
suicide note, mode of death/circumstances, bio
Suicide
Suicide is the third leading cause of death for teenagers
aged 15-19 (after motor vehicle accidents and
unintentional injury)
What are some factors that might contribute to teen
suicide?
Attempted Suicide
“Ordinary People” – 1980 movie based on the novel,
Ordinary People, by Judith Guest.
What kind of stigma is associated with someone who
attempts suicide?
Why does Conrad associate the hospital with some comfort?
Who are the members of Conrad’s “the own” and “the wise”?
How is Conrad’s seeing a psychiatrist viewed?
In what ways are the effects of labeling manifested?
What kind of family dynamics do we see?
Sexual Deviance
Alfred Kinsey
With his extensive research about individuals’ sexual
activities, he took the sexual pulse of America.
The Kinsey Report was his report on Americans’
sexual practices (in 1948) -- the findings surprised
people.
Sexual Deviance
What are some different “styles” of prostitution?
(e.g., streetwalkers, call girls)
Who else is involved in the subculture of
prostitution?
the pimp
the john
How do prostitutes view the client?
(think of the terminology – “turning tricks”)
Sexual Deviance
What are some sociological explanations of
prostitution?
Exploitation – Poverty and inequality are the main
factors.
Functionalism – Prostitution is said to preserve
the social order.
Learning – Prostitutes are made, not born.
Labeling – 3 stages to becoming a prostitute:
drift, transition, professionalization.
SHOULD PROSTITUTION BE LEGAL?
(Perhaps certain styles or kinds of
prostitution, such as private consenting adult
sexwork?)
IMPLICATIONS?
Sexual Deviance
“Coming Out As A Transgendered Person”
Some terms in the article:
“transgenderists”
“transsexuals”
“transvestites”
“ambigenderists”
A Third Gender?
The “berdache” (i.e., those who have a mix of both genders) are
commonly accepted in many Native American tribes.
Viewed as having a special status, as if blessed by the gods.
Thought to be the “middle gender,” and seen as prophets
and visionaries.
[Consider a gender continuum, separate from biological sex types]
Sexual Deviance
What challenges are faced by individuals whose
gender does not match their sex?
What, in this article, was most striking to you?
How do we “do” gender?
Sexual Deviance, Everyday Deviance, Meddling
“Deviants on Talk Shows”
With respect to sexual deviance (or deviants),
what purposes do talk shows serve?
In addition to sexual deviance, what other topics/behaviors
are typically dealt with on talk shows? In what manner is
this done, and to what effect?
Meddling as Deviant?
Consider the work of Chuck Edgley & Denny Brissett –
“Health Nazis” (society’s emphasis on the moral
responsibility we have to achieve the perfect body).
MEDDLING
What is meddling? A thrusting of oneself, often
boldly, into the affairs of others.
2 types of meddlers: amateur and professional
Why people meddle:
generate money, establish power, entertainment,
develop self-knowledge, a way to be remembered, feeling of
superiority
Meddling
Justifications given for meddling:
“It affects me, too.”
“It’s best for everyone involved.”
“It’s for your own good.”
“You don’t know what you’re doing.”
“I’m just trying to help.”
Why people allow themselves to be meddled with:
Belief in expertise.
Doubt and fear.
Sympathy, attention, etc.
Meddling
Rationales for Meddling:
* Belief in rational solutions to human problems.
* Declining belief in fate, luck, chance.
* Belief in the expertise of specialists.
* The rise of the therapeutic ethic.
* Focus on others’ expectations (David Riesman’s
notion of other-directedness).
* The Rights Revolution.
Consider ideological rationales available to the meddler:
health, the children, community, prevention, etc.
Meddling
Questions for Discussion:
Is meddling a deviant act?
How is meddling connected to conformity, morality, and
individual responsibility for well-being? What is the
relevance of the “blaming the victim” phenomenon?
What justifications have you used (or observed others
using) for meddling?
What are some positive aspects of meddling?
The Disease (or Medical) Model of Deviance
Deviance is attributed to illness rather than willful activity;
deviance is a “condition” with identifiable causes, which may be
cured.
What form does social control take? (Treatment)
If one’s condition may be categorized as “medical,” then he/she is
cast into the “sick role.”
Implications of this perspective?
Informal Deviance
Informal Deviance - Deviation from commonly accepted
customs and practices (EXAMPLES?).
Others’ reactions…informal social control may take the
form of ridicule, glances, gossip.
The informal deviance may be unintentional (e.g.,
wearing clothing not appropriate for the situation), or it
may be intentional (e.g., members of subcultures
expressing their deviant identity).
Deviance in Everyday Interactions
“Everyday Deviances” are occasional slip-ups which
temporarily mark one as awkward.
Efforts to avoid everyday deviances:
1. Control of Space
2. Control of Props
3. Control of Bodies
Informal Deviance - Style
Appearance & Self - What does our appearance say
about who we are? What kind of identity are we trying to
present?
Appearance & Gender – What kinds of sanctions are
applied when people don’t dress consistent with their
sex?
Appearance & Age – What expectations (in terms of
appearance) do we have of someone based upon
his/her age?
Informal Deviance - Sports
Sports & Conformity
“The American Ideology of
Sport”
Sports & Deviance
* Deviant conduct on the field of
play
* Deviant conduct off the field
* Manipulation of the outcome
of games (e.g., gambling)
SHOULD ATHLETES BE
HELD TO HIGHER
STANDARDS?
Informal Deviance – Rock Music
Opposition to rock music has come from:
Parents (e.g., Parents’ Music Resource Center)
Academics (e.g., scholars who condemn rock music as part of mass
culture; psychiatrists who link rock music to problems faced by
adolescents)
Religious leaders (suggestions that rock music corrupts youth)
Politicians (e.g., the Conservative Right; McCarthy’s followers in the
1950s; Vice-President Spiro Agnew in the 1970s)
Media (control rock subcultures by co-optation; perform gatekeeping functions)
ARE THE THEMES OF ROCK MUSIC MORE DEVIANT
THAN THOSE IN OTHER GENRES OF MUSIC?
Informal Deviance - Emotions
Sociologist Arlie Hochschild
feeling rules – Prescriptions for how we ought to feel
in given situations.
emotion work – Attempts to change, in degree or
quality, an emotion or feeling (“surface acting” or
“deep acting”).
EXAMPLES OF VIOLATING FEELING RULES -- WHAT WERE THE
CONSEQUENCES?
MUST MEN AND WOMEN ABIDE BY DIFFERENT FEELING RULES?
IMPLICATIONS OF OUR ENGAGING IN SO MUCH EMOTION WORK?
Cyberspace
Consider (socio-historically) the relationship between new
technologies and deviant behavior.
What types of deviant behaviors are possible in cyberspace?
(e.g., sexual deviancy, identity play, illegal downloads,
cyber slacking)
IMPLICATIONS?
Subcultures
A subculture is a collection of norms, values, and beliefs
whose content is distinguishable from that of the
dominant culture.
For some people, participation in a subculture reinforces
beliefs they hold. For others, exposure to a subculture
may cause them to question their mainstream beliefs.
For many people, subcultures are a means of
establishing relationships with others like themselves.
Subcultures
Subcultures are often based on
musical style (e.g., punk, disco, rap)
Subcultures often have their own slang
and jargon.
EXAMPLES?
Examples of subcultures:
youth culture, delinquent subculture,
street addict subculture, prostitution,
biker subculture (OTHERS?)