KEYSTONE PREPARATION TUTORING
Module A
Cells and Cell Processes
Unit 1
Basic Biological Principles
• BIO.A.1.1.1
▫ Describe the characteristics of life shared by all
prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
• BIO.A.1.2.1
▫ Compare cellular structures and their functions in
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• BIO.A.1.2.2
▫ Describe and interpret relationships between structure
and function at various levels of biological
organization (i.e., organelles, cells, tissues, organs,
organ systems, and multicellular organisms).
Unifying Characteristics of Life
• Introductory Video
• Shared characteristics:
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
Obtaining and using energy
Maintaining a stable internal state
The ability to grow
The ability to reproduce
Responding to stimuli in the environment
Have genetic material
Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cells
• Differences:
▫ Size
▫ Complexity
• Similarities
▫
▫
▫
▫
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
DNA
Plasma membrane
Challenge: Do you know the
animal organelles?
Set up a piece of paper #1-8
T. Trimpe 2008 http://sciencespot.net/
Label the parts of the cell.
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
Golgi Body
Lysosome
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Ribosome
Image: http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/13-cells.htm
The answers are …
1–
Cell membrane
2–
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
3–
Nucleus
4–
Ribosome
5–
Lysosome
6–
Mitochondria
7–
Golgi Body
8–
Cytoplasm
Challenge: Do you know the
plant organelles?
Set up a piece of paper #1-8
T. Trimpe 2008 http://sciencespot.net/
Cytoplasm
Cell Wall
Vacuole
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Cell Membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Chloroplast
Image: http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/images/oxed/children/yoes/nature/plantcell.jpg
The answers are …
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Nucleus
Cell Wall
Cell
Membrane
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Organization of Multicellular
Organisms
• An organism’s cells make up its tissues.
• Tissues compose organs.
• Different organs work together as organ systems.
Organization (cont.)
• Differentiated cells are specialized to perform
particular functions within a multicellular
organism.
• Can you identify these cells?
Nerve
Cells
Red
Blood
Cells
#6 Refer to the diagram above to
answer the following questions
• A. Identify structure 1 and describe its main
function
▫ Structure 1 is the cell wall and its role is to support
and provide protection for the cell.
• B. Identify structure 3 and describe its main
function.
▫ Structure 3 is the central vacuole and its role is to
store water and nutrients
C. A wilted houseplant is watered.
Explain how structures 1 and 3 work
together to cause change in the plant
• A plant wilts because it has lost water when the
plant is watered the water is stored in the central
vacuole and this organelle expands. This place
pressure against the cell wall, which remains
rigid. This pressure within the plant cell causes
the plant to remain upright.
4. A Describe how the function of the
contractile vacuole helps the protist
stay alive
• The function of the contractile vacuole is to
maintain water balance in the organism.
B. Describe how the same function is carried out in animals.
Identify at least one organ or system involved in its function.
• The kidneys of the excretory system carry out the
same function in animals. Cells release
metabolic wastes into the bloodstream and the
circulatory carried these wastes to kidneys.
There the blood is filtered and wastes form
urine, which is excreted from the body.
c.
Describe how the same (or a similar) function
is carried out in plants . Identify at least one
organ, structure, or cell type involved in this
function
• The Stomata of plant leaves carry out
similar function in plants. The stomata
close to keep water vapor from escaping
the leaves. When the stomata open, gas
exchange may occur in the leaf but water
vapor may also escape.
5A Describe how the structure of
arteries are specialized for their
particular function.
• The structure of the artery allows it to withstand,
the force of the blood pumped from the heart.
The artery’s thick wall of smooth muscle tissue
and the elastic membrane enable it to carry a
changing volume of blood under high pressure
B. Describe how the structure of veins
are specialized for their particular
function
• The structure of the veins allows it to
move blood collected from capillaries
toward the heart. Because blood is not
forced through the vein, it has a thinner
wall of smooth muscle than the artery.
The vein’s valves prevent blood from
moving backward and keep it flowing
toward the heart.
C. Describe how the function of
capillaries is made possible by their
structure
• The microscopic size and complex
branching of the capillaries allows them
to reach all the cells of the body and
allows materials to be exchanged between
these cells and the bloodstream.
Unit 2
The Chemical Basis for Life
• BIO.A.2.1
▫ Describe the unique properties of water and how these
properties support life on Earth (e.g., freezing point,
high specific heat, cohesion).
• BIO.A.2.2.1
▫ Explain how carbon is uniquely suited to form
biological macromolecules.
• BIO.A.2.2.2
▫ Describe how biological macromolecules form from
monomers.
• BIO.A.2.2.3
▫ Compare the structure and function of carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in organisms.
Unique Properties of Water
• A water molecule is made of 2 hydrogen atoms
and 1 oxygen atom and is held together by a
covalent bond.
• Water is POLAR!
▫ It has a negative (-) oxygen region and a positive
(+) region.
▫ These charges create hydrogen bonds between
molecules.
▫ Opposite attract so water molecules ‘stick’
together. This is called COHESION.
Cohesion vs. Adhesion
• Cohesive molecules ‘stick’ or are attracted to
themselves. This builds up SURFACE TENSION
which is like a thin film on top of a body of
water.
• Adhesion is when water can ‘stick’ or is
attracted to something other than itself.
• Like cohesion, adhesive forces are created by
hydrogen bonding between molecules.
Capillary action
• Capillarity is
the ability of a
liquid to flow
against gravity
in a narrow
space.
• It requires
both cohesive
AND adhesive
forces.
Capillary Action in Plants
Let’s Review Properties of Water
• Crash Course Water
• Important Properties:
▫
▫
▫
▫
Polarity
Cohesion
Adhesion
Specific heat (Heat Capacity)
 Heat of vaporization (evaporation)
 Heat of fusion (freezing)
▫ Density and freezing point
▫ pH
Organic Molecules
• CARBON!
▫ Makes up to 4 covalent bonds.
▫ Includes single, double, and triple bonds.
▫ Macromolecules
 Made of chains/rings of smaller molecules
 Always has CHO! (Carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen)
• There are 4 macromolecules
▫
▫
▫
▫
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Lipids
• NONPOLAR (repels water molecules)
• Examples: fat, oil, wax, and sterols
(cholesterol/hormones)
• Structure
▫ Looks like an ‘E’
▫ Glycerol
▫ Fatty acids
• Function
▫
▫
▫
▫
STORES energy
Cell/plasma membrane
Insulation
Send messages/signals
Carbohydrates
• Examples:
▫ sugar (-ose)
▫ starch (glycogen)
▫ cellulose (fiber from plants).
• Structure
▫
▫
▫
▫
Have more oxygen atoms than lipids.
Chains of rings!
Monomers make polymers
Hydroxyl group (-OH)
• Function
▫ Glucose is a reactant in cell’s for respiration.
▫ Main source of ENERGY.
▫ Substitute for bones in plants. Help plants stand up
straight.
Dehydration Synthesis vs. Hydrolysis
• Dehydration synthesis
▫ Dehydrate- “remove water”
▫ Synthesis’ “to make”
▫ Joins monomers together by REMOVING a
molecule of water.
• Hydrolysis
▫ Hydro- “water”
▫ Lysis- “to break”
▫ Breaks apart polymers by ADDING a molecule of
water.
Nucleic Acids
• Examples: DNA and RNA
• Structure
▫ Nucleotides
 A, C, G, T (U)
▫ Sugar (deoxyribose or ribose)
▫ CHO + Phosphate + Nitrogen
• Function
▫ Encodes genetic information for the cell:
 Heredity
 Protein Synthesis
Proteins
• Structure
▫
▫
▫
▫
Made of amino acids (20)
CHO + Nitrogen
Amine and carboxyl groups
Peptide bonds joins amino acids by mean of
dehydration synthesis.
• Function
▫ Makes cell parts/organelles
▫ Animal structures (hair, nails, muscle tissue)
▫ Makes channels that allow things to enter or leave
the cell.
▫ ENZYMES!
Let’s Review Macromolecules!
• The Molecules of Life
• Important points:
▫ ALL macromolecules are made of Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Oxygen.
▫ Some macromolecules have nitrogen and
phosphate.
▫ Macromolecules have many important “groups”.
 Hydroxyl (-OH)
 Carboxyl (-COOH)
-Phosphate (-PO3)
-Amino (-NH2)
Enzymes!
• BIO.A.2.3.1
▫ Describe the role of an enzyme as catalyst in
regulating a specific biochemical reaction.
• BIO.A.2.3.2
▫ Explain how factors such as pH, temperature, and
concentration levels can affect enzyme function.
Enzymes
• Special proteins that catalyze, or speed up the
rate of a chemical reaction.
• Catalysts (enzymes) work on substrates to
break them apart at their active site.
• The enzymes do NOT get used up in the process.
• Enzymes can only break apart SPECIFIC
substrates like a specific key can only open a
particular lock.
• Changes in temperature and pH can effect the
function of enzymes and make them slow down
or stop working.
Enzyme Activity
• Video on Reaction Rate ( use bozeman instead)
• Optimum reaction rate
• Factors that affect reaction rate:
▫ Temperature
▫ pH
▫ Substrate Concentration
Keystone Review # 5 pg 32
• A tree absorbs water from its roots and loses
water that evaporates from leaves. Inside the
tree, capillary action allows water to flow
upwards through tissue called xylem, which is
composed of tubes made from cell walls.
A. Identify and explain how two properties of
water contribute to capillary action within the
xylem.
Answer:
• A combination of cohesion and adhesion contribute
to capillary action within the xylem. The transport
of water begins when water evaporates from the
inside of a leaf. Due to cohesion between water
molecules, adjacent water molecules are pulled
along to replace the evaporated molecules. Cohesion
causes all water molecules down to the roots to be
pulled upward. The adhesion of water molecules to
plant cell walls, due to hydrogen bonding, helps
water to resist the downward pull of gravity, holding
it in place
B. A tree can experience cavitation, which occurs
when a bubble of air forms inside a xylem tube.
Explain how cavitation affects a tree’s ability
to conduct water.
• Cativation
Keystone review
• Lipids, such as fats and oils, play important roles
in living organisms. Carbohydrates also carry
out essential functions in living things.
• A. Describe the general structure of a fat or oil
molecule.
• B. Describe how the structures of fats and oils
differ from the structure of carbohydrates.
• C. Describe how the function of fats and oils is
similar to a function of carbohydrates.
Answer
• A. Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Three fatty acid chains attached to a molecule of
glycerol.
Answer
• B. Also made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, and
oxygen but in a 1:2:1 ratio. Lipids are mostly
Carbon and hydrogen with few oxygen.
Carbohydrates have monomers (glucose) and
polymers (cellulose) while lipids do not have
monomers.
Answer
• C. Fats and oils store energy while carbohydrates
are used to make energy.
Unit 3
Bioenergetics
• BIO.A.3.1.1 -Describe the fundamental roles of
plastids (e.g., chloroplasts) and mitochondria in
energy transformations.
• BIO.A.3.2.1 - Compare the basic transformation
of energy during photosynthesis and cellular
respiration.
• BIO.A.3.2.2 - Describe the role of ATP in
biochemical reactions.
ATP and Cellular Respiration
• ATP – (Adenosine Triphosphate) is a small,
soluble molecule that provides energy to
reactions throughout the cell.
▫ The bond that attached the last phospate group to
the ATP molecule releases energy when broken.
Cellular Respiration
• Cellular Respiration is the process that breaks
down organic molecules, such as glucose, that
originate in food.
• Overall Equation:
• 6O2 + C6H12O6  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Or
• Oxygen + glucose  carbon dioxide + water +
energy
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration
• Aerobic means “requiring oxygen”
▫ Breaks down glucose and oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water
• Anaerobic means “ not requiring oxygen”
▫ An example is fermentation which is used to make
alcohol and bread.
Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Stages of Cellular
Respiration
Occurs in
Number of ATP Per
Glucose
1. Glycolysis
Cytoplasm
2
2. Krebs Cycle (Citric
Acid Cycle)
Mitochondrial Matrix
2
32-34
3. Electron Transport
Chain
Inner Membrane of
Mitochondria
Total = 36-38
Can you identify the stage of cellular respiration
1
4
7
5
2
3
6
8
Grand
total
1. Glycolysis
2.
Cytoplasm
3. Total of 2
4. Krebs Cycle
7. Electron
Transport Chain
5.
Mitochondria
6. Total of 2
8. Total of
32-34
Grand
total
of 3638
Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis is a process that coverts light
energy from the sun into chemical energy stored
in compounds such as glucose
The Reactions of Photosynthesis
• Remember it all occurs in the chloroplast.
▫ Thylakoids – sac-like photosynthetic membranes
inside chloroplasts, arranged in stacks called
grana
 Photosystems – clusters of pigments in thylakoid
▫ Stroma – region outside of the thylakoid
membrane (Calvin Cycle takes place)
The two stages of Photosynthesis
• Stage 1 - light-dependent reactions
▫
▫
▫
▫
Uses chlorophyll in the thylakoid membranes
Captures the energy from sunlight to produce ATP
Splits water molecules need for the next stage
Release Oxygen gas from the leaf
• Stage 2 – light –independent reactions (calvin
cycle)
▫ Takes place in the stroma
▫ Depends on energy from the light reactions
▫ Converts CO2 into organic molecules such as glucose
Can you identify the stage of photosynthesis?
1.
2
5
1
3
6
4
7
2.
2
1
5
1.
2.
3
6
4
7
Unit 4 – Homeostasis and Transport
• BIO.A.4.1.1 - Describe how the structure of the plasma
membrane allows it to function as a regulatory structure
and/or protective barrier for a cell.
• BIO.A.4.1.2 - Compare the mechanisms that transport
materials across the plasma membrane (i.e., passive
transport—diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion; and
active transport—pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis).
• BIO.A.4.1.3 - Describe how membrane-bound cellular
organelles (e.g., endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus) facilitate the transport of materials within a
cell.
• BIO.A.4.2.1 - Explain how organisms maintain
homeostasis (e.g., thermoregulation, water regulation,
oxygen regulation).
The Phospholipid Bilayer
• Plasma membrane aka the cell membrane
consists of two layers of phospholids.
▫ Phospholipid head is polar which is hydrophilic
▫ Two tails are nonpolar which is hydrophobic
Concentration
Concentration refers to the amount of a substance
dissolved in a given volume of water.
Concentration Gradient is the gradient is the
distribution of particles across space from high to
low concentration
Diffusion
• Primary means of cell transport
▫ Requires no energy
- molecules move from high to low concentration
- movement continues with the gradient until
the molecules are evenly distributed until
equilibrium is achieved
Passive Transport
 Energy for passive transport comes from the
molecules themselves
 In passive transport, molecules move with the
concentration gradient
- move from high concentration to low
concentration
Facilitated Diffusion
 Particles move with the concentration gradient
across a transport protein in the membrane
▫
Transport proteins is a protein built into the
plasma membrane that helps certain kinds of
molecules or ions pass through
Osmosis
• The diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane
- water moves from where there is more water to
where there is less water
- water moves toward higher conc. of dissolved
material - solute
Do you remember which one is
hypertonic, which one is hypotonic,
and which one isotonic
Active Transport
• Requires energy (ATP)
because it goes from low
concentration to high
concentration.
▫ Small molecules or ions
across the membrane is
carried out by transport
protein and “pumps”.
▫ Large molecules can cross the
membrane by endocytosis
and exocytosis.
Sodium Potassium Pump
• The protein “pumps” the sodium ion (Na+) out of the cell
and potassium (K-) into the cell.
• ATP provides the energy that keep the pumps working.
• Is needed for the electrical impulse nerves
Types of Active Transport
1.
Endocytosis is how large molecules get into the
cell.
▫
The cell membrane surrounds the molecule and
encloses it in a vacuole.


2.
Phagocytosis - food
Pinocytosis – fluids
Exocytosis is how waste or other proteins are
removed from the cell

Golgi Body helps in this process.
On back: Define – Hypotonic, Isotonic and Hypertonic
Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant
internal state; where water, glucose, oxygen, pH
and temperature are regulated and maintained
in specific ranges.
Negative Feedback Loops
• Any change to a system
causes the system to return
to its original state.
▫ Example is regulating body
temperature
• Thermoregulation
▫ Is the regulation of body
temperature
Positive Feedback Loop
• Amplifies a change to the system, causing it
move farther and farther from its original state.