Sociolinguistics⑧
Xiao Long-Fu
Applied
Linguistics
Programme
School of
Foreign Languages
SDNU
01-26-2013
Chapter 8 Standard & nonstandard
English
“English is a fluid and democratic language
in which meanings shift and change in
response to the pressure of common usage
rather than the dictates of committees.”
(Bill Bryson, 1996?).
美国，《纽约时报》(New York Times)记者、《难
词词典》(A Dictionary of Troublesome Words)
编者比尔.布莱森(Bill Bryson)曾指出，英语是一
种规则比较宽泛、自由度较大的语言。
Standard & nonstandard English
In as early as 1905，Otto Jesperson argued，English
lacks effective authorities, and, compared with
French, it seems not to be as rigid. In this field
of English, you can run freely at will, and do not
need to be afraid of any gardeners who will ask you
to follow the rules.
Indeed, both Britain and the USA have appealed to
set up language research academy to normalize the
standards of English, but quite many authoritative
linguists or VIP do not take it seriously.
Standard & nonstandard English
Joseph Priestly, a 18th century grammarian, is one
of those who are against setting up such kind of
research institute to normalize English language. He
said: do not set up authoritative organizations to
normalize people’s speeches. It is no good for
developing the talents of a democratic country by
doing things that way. The speech patterns will
become perfect with the time going on. There are
many debates over that, but history will have the
final say. Though it may take time, it is better
than the careless and inappropriate normalization
made by the authoritative organizations.
Standard & nonstandard English
What Priestly said has many followers.
Thomas Jefferson then also thought that it
is better not to set up language research
institute to normalize the English patterns.
The issue of normalizing English language
often rely on the speeches of famous
persons/liberties or the explanation in the
dictionaries. This is surely effective. The
Declaration of Independence, and Gettysburg
Address have been both used in schools
as models to learn by students.
(e.f.曝光exposure- Pu guang，也作bao guang)
Standard & nonstandard English
Gettysburg Address was delivered on the 19th of
Nov.1863. It has been one of the most beautiful and
poetic speeches in American literature. It has not
been warlike at all, though it is a speech
celebrating military victory; on the contrary, it is
a touching ode, praising those who lost their lives,
and the ideals for which these gave their lives.
林肯的葛底斯堡演说是美国文学中最漂亮、最富有 诗意的
文章之一。虽然这是一篇庆祝军事胜利的演说，但它没有好
战之气；相反地，这是一 篇感人肺腑 的颂辞，赞美那些作
出最后牺牲的人，以及他们爲之献身的那些理想。
Standard & nonstandard English
8.1 Standard & nonstandard English
“Standard English is that variety of
English which is usually used in print,
and which is normally taught in schools
and to non-native speakers learning the
language. It is also the variety which
is normally spoken by educated people
and used in news broadcasts and other
similar situations.” (Trudgill, 1992)
Standard & nonstandard English
Generally speaking, standard English has
all-accepted systematic grammar, and is used
by the educated and authorities. Speaking
about standard English, it means that it is
grammatically correct, word precisely, in
accordance with norms and usage. As to
pronunciation, it is not very rigid. People
can speak standard English with one’s own
local accent. In theory, at least, this can
be thought of like that. As it often happens
in China, people from different provinces or
autonomous regions all can speak Putonghua,
but their Putonghua is of local dialect. The
pronunciation of standard
Standard & nonstandard English
Trudgill argues，”It is, however, not
necessary to speak RP to speak Standard
English. Standard English can be spoken
with any regional accent.” BBC English
and Oxford English are both RP. When
teaching non-native speakers English,
we in China also teach then RP. The
London accent we have talked about in
China is RP.
Standard & nonstandard English
Both the status and prestige of
standard English are superior to those
of English dialects. It is regarded as
the correct one, beautiful, good, and
pure, while nonstandard English, with a
low status, is regarded as incorrect,
ugly, corrupt, and bad. However,
Trudgill argues all languages, from a
linguistic perspective, including their
local dialects, are all as good.
Standard & nonstandard English
The reason why one language is regarded as correct
and pure is totally because of people’s social
attitudes, not because of the classification of
superiority and inferiority in languages or dialects
themselves. The division of so-called good and bad
English is also forged by social factors, not by the
language itself. People who speak nonstandard
English (or call it bad English) are mostly people
of poverty and low status. The pronunciations of
people from the country are regarded as
unpleasant(难听）。
Standard & nonstandard English
标准英语的地位与声誉都高于英语方言，因此被看
作是正确的、漂亮的、好的、纯正的，而地位较低
的非标准英语被看作是错误的、丑陋的、讹用的
(corrupt)、坏的。然而，Trudgill认为，从语言
学立场看，所有的语言包括其相应的方言，都是一
样的好。之所以某种语言被认为正确与纯粹，完全
是因为社会态度造成的，而不是语言或方言本身有
什么优劣之分。所谓好英语与坏英语也是社会因素，
不是语言因素造成的。说非标准英语（或称坏英语）
的人们多是贫困和社会地位低下的人们。英国乡下
人的发音往往被认为难听(unpleasant)。
Standard & nonstandard English
Some English learners often find that some sentences
are grammatically correct, but do not comply with
the usage, while some ones follow the usage, but are
not grammatically correct. So, it is the degree that
the learners have to master in learning the language:
we should not be limited to grammar rules, nor
should we be widely free. What we should do is to
follow the usage.
Language is a kind of behavior of man, which has
been governed by some parts of society all the time.
Grammar is one of them. To talk about usage without
grammar seems to be very hard for people to follow,
especially for those who learn English as a foreign
language.
Standard & nonstandard English
”The term dialect can be used to apply to
all varieties, not just to nonstandard
varieties.” (Trudgill)
Standard English in fact is also a kind of
dialect. But the social status of this
dialect is superior to other dialects, apart
from that it is different from other
dialects in pronunciation, grammar, and
vocabulary.
标准英语其实也是一种方言。不过这种方言除去在
发音、语法、用词方面不同于其他所有方言之外，
其社会地位比别的方言都高。
8.2 Classification of English
Robert Pooley, a linguist, classifies English into several levels as
to good and bad English：
① The lowest level of English is illiterate level (文盲层次), whose
users are mainly the uneducated or of little education. Their English
cannot be admitted into the classroom, for example:
I
You
They
Them
is
We
You
They
was
He
come
done
seen
run
Have
went
came
did
saw
This level of English is orderless in tense, lacking verbs and
wording incorrectly. Their parts of speech are misused, and not
matched in negative forms.
这一层次的英语句子时态混乱、缺少动词和用词不当、词性混用、否定形式不
对等等。
Classification of English
②The next is homely level. This level of English does
not belong to standard English, nor totally
illiterate level. Some very talented persons,
because of their background, parentage, occupation,
or region limitation, have no chance at all to
receive education and enter into upper social
classes. They speak this kind of English with their
children at home. Their children are attending
schools in the country. Their teachers are trying to
teach these students standard English on the one
hand, and help these students to get rid of those
bad English on the other. The incorrectness of this
level of English is also very clear. Some have
problems in grammar, while others may be wrong in
lexicon.
Classification of English
Pooley offers the following examples:
Mary’s mother, she isn’t very smart.
（错误的双主语）
We can’t scarcely do it.
（错误的双重否定）
Hadn’t he ought to do it? （助动词错）
Stop the bus, I want out.
（缺不定式）
He comes of a Sunday.
（介词用错）
He don’t come here any more.
（动词人称错）
In the US, many children and lower class members often use this
level of English, but it is not widely accepted. Teachers at schools
show sympathy and understanding for this level of English by children,
and do not laugh at them. They try to help them to learn to speak
standard English, and let them know that standard English is worth
valued.
Classification of English
③The third level is standard English at informal
level(第三个层次是非正式层次的标准英语)，which is
used at informal occasions by the well-bred, and the
educated. Some of the vocabularies can reveal this
feature. But in formal social contact, talking with
strangers, and making public speeches alike, they do
not use this level of English. Mostly, the teachers
use this level of English in classrooms, and the
students are also required to master this level of
English. This level of English is not bookish. It is
not necessary at all to use formal English because
between the students themselves they are friends.
Classification of English
The following are examples, which we often
meet with in daily life and are offered by
Pooley:
I have never seen anyone act like he does.
Most everyone is familiar with this picture.
John is the quickest of the two.
Who did you send for？
Where can you get these kind of gloves?
Classification of English
这种英语是有教养、受过教育的人们在非正
式场合使用的，某些词语可以体现出其特点。
但在正式的社会联络、与陌生人交谈、公开
演说等场合，不用这种英语。通常教师们在
课堂上讲课要用这个层次的英语，学校的学
生要求掌握的也是这种英语。这种英语不具
书卷气，学生之间交谈如同朋友之间交谈，
也毫无必要使用正式形式。
Classification of English
The fourth level is formal standard English (第四层
次是正式的标准英语)，which is very aesthetic in
wording and phrasing. It avoids informal styles.
They are grammatically correct. For instance, the
cases of noun and pronoun are very clear; the tenses
of verbs and the forms of the theme are very rigid;
there are more modifiers, with each in its precise
position. The sentence structures are complex, and
bookish. This level of English are mainly used as
written English, including official letters,
documents, reports, editorials, textbooks, formal
speeches, literary works and literary criticism.
Classification of English
In composition classes, the teachers require the
students to use this level of English to write
expositions and argumentations. However, in writing
narrations, and letters to friends, students are not
encouraged to use this level of English. Some
conjunctions, adverbs, prepositions or phrases are
signs of formal style of English. Some of the
frequently appeared are “despite, furthermore,
inasmuchas, notwithstanding, on the contrary, etc.”
These are sure to appear in formal style of writing,
and are not used in informal English contexts.
Classification of English
The following examples offered by Pooley can be
identified in terms of wording, and mood as standard
English.
I shall be glad to help you.
Here are three whom we have omitted from the list.
We had better stay at home.
Under the circumstances, he did as well as might be
expected.
Classification of English
这一层次的英语在遣词造句上都很讲究，回避非正式语体；
语法规范，如名词、代词的格、数很细致，动词时态、句子
的主位格式都严谨；修饰语较多，位置精确，次序分明，句
子结构复杂，具有书卷气。这主要用作书面语，包括公函、
文件、报道、社论、课本、正式演讲词，文学作品及其评论
也多用这个层次的英语。
学生作文课上教师要求写的说明文(exposition)和辩论文
(argumentation)要用这种英语。但记叙文(narration)、与
朋友之间的通信不必用这种正式的英语。有些连词、副词、
介词或短语是正式文体的标志。例如经常出现的有：
despite, furthermore, inasmuch as, notwithstanding,
on the contrary等。这些一定是出现在正式文体之中，非
正式英语中不会使用这类词语。Pooley所举下列例句从用词
上、语气上都可以看出是正式标准英语.
Classification of English
⑤The fifth level is literary level English. According to Pooley,
this level of English is not only formal standard English, but
also very strict in choosing words and phrases, paying
attention to swing（音律）. The author is often very
passionate in expressing. The rhetoric within the sentences,
such as rhythm, pair, metaphor, etc. are clear, which
impresses people aesthetically,let’say, the charm of art.
The whole speeches in Gettysburg Address delivered by Abraham
Lincoln are regarded as literary level English.
(Delivered on the 19th Day of November, 1863
Cemetery Hill, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania)
Give me liberty, or give me death.（不自由，毋宁死）对语。
（antithesis)
所用的语句被认为是文学层次的英语。
Classification of English
Robert Pooley identifies the above five levels of
English. It is generally accepted that the first two
levels belong to “bad English”, while the last
three are “good English”. Anyway, this is not
absolute because everything is changing.
Robert Pooley所列举的上述五个层次的英语，一般认为前
两种属于“bad English”, 而后三种属于“good
English”。但这又不是绝对的，因为事物都在变化。
Bill Bryson says，”Considerations of what makes
good English or bad English are to an uncomfortably
large extent matters of prejudice and conditioning.”
He offers examples, saying that in the 18th century
when you referred to one person, one could say “you
was”, but now one should say you were.
他举例说，18世纪时，当you 指一个人时，可以说you was,
现在都变成了you were.
Classification of English
Then why after the singular form you the plural form
were is followed?
He then offers another example,
saying: I am hurrying, are I not? Is not
grammatically right. But how to explain “I am
hurrying, aren’t I”, which is thought as perfect
English?
Grammar and usage is a pair of contradicts, and
both are supplementary to each other. To only pay
attention to grammar and take no notice of usage is
not living language; conversely, to only pay
attention to usage and take no notice of grammar is
not good language. In fact, grammar and usage are
often in accordance with each other.
8.3 Flabby English (松弛英语）
Flabby English refers to the English which people
regard it as “unchangeable”, and therefore write
or speak it scholastically or by following all the
rules, or with attitude of linguistic purism.
However, there are some who use flabby English
because of their carelessness and little training.
Gary Goshgarian says in his book 《语言探索》
Language Exploration like the muscle of human being,
it will sag if it lacks training. When reading
flabby English, it seems to be very precise and
overstaffed（古板臃肿）,outmoded, lifeless. There
are many overlappings and circuities. For example,
one can say “I enjoy reading Hamlet”, but instead
one likes to say “After I read hamlet, I had the
feeling that I was glad that I had read it”.
松弛英语
Flabby English is also characterized by using
cliché. This kind of words and phrases are flyblown
(声誉低下）and are stereotyped and mediocre. Some
boring metaphors and hackneyed (陈腐的) grammar
rules, such as, “far be it from me to”.
Partridge offers many examples, first of which are
idoms that are characterized by synonymy, nearsynonymy, and overlapping. For example,
“by leaps
and bounds, far and wide, chop and change, pick and
choose, safe and sound, null and void, heart and
soul”. Some antisense joint (反义联合) phrases also
belong to this group，such as：”slow but sure, kill
or cure, fast and loose, as fit as a fiddle, as old
as hills, as steady as a rock, etc”.
松弛英语
by leaps and bounds(飞跃地，突飞猛进地 );far and
wide(广泛地),；chop and change（变化无常）； pick
and choose（挑挑拣拣）； safe and sound（安然无恙）；
null and void（空虚、无效）； heart and soul（灵
魂）”.
Some antisense joint (反义联合) phrases also belong
to this group，such as：”slow but sure（宁慢勿乱；
慢工出细活 ；龟兔赛跑；虽然慢但最后一定胜利 ）, kill
or cure（(医药)要么断送生命，要么挽救生命；不管怎样，
好歹；孤注一掷；要么成功，要么失败 ）, fast and
loose（飞快地）, as fit as a fiddle（非常健康）, as
old as hills（ 万古千秋 、极古老、极老 ）, as steady
as a rock（坚如磐石）, etc”.
松弛英语
松弛英语还表现在使用陈腐词语(cliché)方
面。这种词语是一种声誉低下(flyblown)的
表达方式，是一种陈旧的(stereotyped)、平
庸的短语，包括某些乏味的隐喻和某些陈腐
的(hackneyed) 语法格式（如far be it
from me to . . .)。
松弛英语
Some are boring non-idom word and
expressions, which make the listeners and
readers sick. Such as, “armed to the teeth,
as a matter of fact, from the bottom of
one’s heart, last but not least, one’s
better half, quite the opposite, to fall on
deaf ear, to welcome with open arms, etc.”
Some are not new in grammar rules, such as,
“all things considered, be that as it may,
etc.”
松弛英语
Some quotations are also regarded as flabby English
because they are quoted too often and too much. For
instance, “To be or not to be, that is the
question”, (Shakespeare: 做还是不做，是一个值得考虑
的问题）.
“A thing of beauty is a joy for ever”, (Keats (济
慈)一件美好的东西是永远的喜乐）
Some quotative words and phrases from Latin, French
are also regarded as flabby English. E.g. “aqua
pura”（拉丁语，水），”carte blanche”（全权委托）,
which are used too often. quotative
松弛英语
Why we say hackneyed English belong to
flabby English?
为什么说陈腐英语也属松弛英语呢？
松弛英语
This is because people often use half a verbalism
( 套话）or one whole sentence in a deliberately
mystifying manner to express what can be done by
using one or two words. Such as, “to all intents
and purposes (virtually); to have neither chick nor
child (to be childless)”.
Generally speaking, those who like to use this
kind of English/ cliché are those who are halfeducated or uncultured, little-reading. They might
know very little about hackneyed English, have the
words at hand, or think it may drive their level of
speeches and articles up by quoting the celeberties
and then use it.
松弛英语
However, this probably outsmarts
themselves. Actually, it is not
absolute not to use hackneyed English.
It can be used when to achieve a kind
of effect and an aim. Partridge argues
that public figures/politicians treat
this group of words as friends in need.
We can come across these words and
phrases in their speeches and articles.
8.4 American Slang
Slang (sl): very informal words, phrases, etc.
commonly used in speeches, esp. between people from
the same social group or who work together, not
considered suitable for formal contexts and often
not in use for long.
“Grass” is criminal slang for “informer”.
Slang is also informal language, and used generally
in informal contexts. The Americans seem to be
particularly hospitable to slangs. According to Paul
Dickson, the author of Slangs, there are more than
35,000 words that are once or now slangs in
American English. The slangs we talk about here are
those accepted by, and familiar to the American
residents.
American Slang
American slangs come mainly from cant
(行话、术语- specialized language of a
particular group; jargon; thieves’
cant) , jargon, and argot (words and
phrases used by a particular group,
especially thieves, and not intended to
be understood by others; cant) words.
When more people get familiar with
these words, some of them will probably
become slangs.
American Slang
俚语也是一种非正式语言，一般在非正式场合经常
使用，主要表现在某些词语和句子上与标准语有距
离。美国人对俚语似乎特别hospitable。据《俚语》
一书作者,Paul Dickson, 美国英语之中不下35000
个词语曾经是或现在是俚语。这里所说的俚语是被
美国公民所广泛认可、熟悉的。
美国俚语主要来自cant（行话、术语- specialized language of
a particular group; jargon; thieves’ cant) ,jargon和argot
(words and phrases used by a particular group, especially thieves,
and not intended to be understood by others; cant) 词语。这种
词语被越来越多的人知道后，其中一部分词语则可
能上升为俚语。
American Slang
Slang has a very long history. There have
been slangs ever since there have been
languages. Slangs are mostly used in spoken
form. According to Stuart Berg Flexner, a
linguist, some slangs were slangs not long
ago, but now have become formal language;
some slangs last briefly, and are very
popular at one period of time, but are
quickly forgotten by people. Americans show
great interest in slangs. They are filled
with imagination, confidence, optimism, and
free in language use. In the US, there are
nor institutions to normalize their English.
End
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