Engineering 45
Metal Apps &
Processing
Bruce Mayer, PE
Registered Electrical & Mechanical Engineer
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Learning Goals
 How Metal Alloys Are Classified
 Uses for Metal Alloys
 Understand Common Metal Fabrication
Processes (Techniques)
 How properties can VARY Throughout a
SINGLE Piece Of Material
• e.g.; as a Result of Quenching
 How to modify Properties by
Post-Processing Heat Treatment
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Metal Alloys
Ferrous
Steels
Steels
<1.4wt%C
<1.4wt%C
Nonferrous
Cast Irons
Cast
Irons
3-4.5wt%C
3-4.5wt%C
Cu
A
1600
d
1200
L
1000
g+L
g
austenite
a800
ferrite
600
400
0
(Fe)
Eutectic:
4.30
g+Fe3C
a+Fe3C
2
3
4
5
6
6.7
Co, wt% C
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Fe3C
cementite
Eutectoid:
1
Metals
Family Tree
(taxonomy)
L+Fe3C
1148°C
727°C
0.77
Ti
microstructure:
ferrite, graphite
cementite
T(°C)
1400
Mg
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Ferrous v. NonFerrous Defined
 A Metal Alloy/Compound is Designated
as FERROUS if it Contains 50+% Iron
 EVERY Other Metal is NONFerrous
 Class Question: Rank these Metals in
Terms of WorldWide Production
 Steel
 Aluminum
 Zinc
 Copper
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Global Metal Production - 2001
Metal
106 Tonnes
Zinc
7
Copper
12
Aluminum
21
Steel (Ferrous)
788
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Why Ferrous Dominates
 Ore is cheap and abundant
 Processing techniques are
economical (extraction,
refining, alloying, fabrication)
 High strength
 Very versatile metallurgy – a wide range
of mechanical and physical properties
can be achieved, and these can be
tailored to the application
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Ferrous Disadvantages
 Low corrosion resistance –
Oxidizes (rusts) easily
• use e.g. titanium, brass instead
 High Density: 7900 kg/m3
(0.29 lb/in3)
• use e.g. aluminum, magnesium
 High temperature strength
could be better
• use nickel instead
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
BASIC DISTINCTION
 BASIC DISTINCTION between
FERROUS and NONferrous alloys:
 Ferrous metals are
‘all-purpose’ alloys
 Non-ferrous metals used for niche
applications, where properties of
ferrous metals
are inadequate
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
STEELS
High Alloy
Low Alloy
low carbon med carbon
high carbon
<0.25wt%C 0.25-0.6wt%C 0.6-1.4wt%C
heat
plain
treatable
Cr,V
Cr, Ni
Additions none
none
none
Ni, Mo
Mo
Example 1018 4310 1040
4340 1095
Hardenability 0
+
+
++
++
TS
0
+
++
+
EL
+
+
0
Name
plain HSLA
Uses
auto
struc.
sheet
bridges
towers
press.
vessels
plain
pistons wear
crank
gears
shafts
applic.
wear
bolts
hammers applic.
blades
austentitic
stainless
tool
Cr, V,
Mo, W
4190
+++
++
--
Cr, Ni, Mo
304
0
0
++
drills
saws
dies
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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high T
applic.
turbines
furnaces
V. corros.
resistant
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
StainLess Steels
 If metallurgist Harry Brearly, the
man credited with the
development of STAINLESS steel,
had his way we would know this
family of alloys as RUSTLESS
steel. However, even in 1913, the
Cutlery Manager of the Sheffield
(England) steel plant where the
new alloy was devised, one
Earnest Stuart, decided that the
name rustless was NO great
MARKETING tool. His test for
utensils made from this new
product was to dip knife blades in
vinegar and he noted they
STAINED LESS than other metals.
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
What is Stainless Steel?
 Must Contain: >10.5% Cr, <1% C
 The Cr Alloying Creates a Cr2O3 surface
Layer that resists oxidation (i.e., rusting)
and makes the material "passive" or
corrosion resistant (i.e., "stainless").
 Three MAIN Branches
• Ferritic → Cr Only, BCC
• Austenitic → Ni Added, FCC, NONmag
• Martensitic → Hard & Brittle
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Martensitic StainLess Steels
 12 to 18% chromium
 Basic
Characteristics
• Are magnetic
• Can be Tempered by
"heat treatment"
• Have "poor" welding
characteristics
 Common Uses
• Knife blades
• Surgical instruments
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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• Fasteners
• Shafts
• Springs
 Grades/Forms
• Metallurgical
structure Martensitic
• Grade: 410 (most
used), 420 (cutlery),
440C (for very high
hardness)
• UNS: S41000,
S42000, S44004
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Ferritic StainLess Steel
 12 to 18% Cr;
<0.2% C
 Basic Character
• Are magnetic
• CANNOT be
hardened by "heat
treatment"
– always used in the
annealed or softened
condition
• Poor Weldability
 Common Uses
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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• Automotive exhaust
and fuel lines
• Architectural trim
• Cooking utensils
• Bank vaults
 Grades/Forms
• Metallurgical
structure - Ferritic
• Grade: 409 (high
temperature), 430
(most used)
• UNS: S40900,
S43000
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Austenitic StainLess Steel
 Nickel added and
the Cr level
increased
• Structure Stays FCC
to Room Temp
 Basic Character
• Are NOT magnetic
• CANNOT be
hardened by "heat
treatment" BUT CAN
be hardened by cold
working
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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• Have the "BEST"
corrosion resistance
• Can be easily
welded
• Have excellent
cleanability and
hygiene
characteristics
• Have exceptional
resistance to both
high and low
temperature
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Austenitic StainLess Steel cont.1
 Common Uses
• Kitchen sinks
• Architectural
applications such as
roofs and gutters,
doors and windows,
tubular frames
• Food processing
equipment
• Restaurant food
preparation areas
• Chemical Vessels
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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• Ovens/Furnaces
• Heat exchangers
 Grades/Forms
• Metallurgical
structure - Austenitic
• Grade: 304 (most
used), 310 (for high
temperature), 316
(for better corrosion
resistance), 317 (for
best corrosion
resistance)
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Other StainLess Steels
 Austenitic Grades
Forms (cont)
• UNS: S30400,
S31000, S31600,
S31700
 Duplex StainLess
• MicroStructure is
Combination of
Ferritic and
Austenitic
• Typical Composition
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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– Cr = 18 to 26%
– Ni = 4-7%
– Mo = 2-3%
• Common Uses
– Sea water
applications
– Heat exchangers
– Desalination plants
– Food pickling plants
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
StainLess Steels Compared
Mechanical Properties
(Annealed condition)
Tensile Strength
Stainless
ksi
MPa
410
70
483
430
75
517
304
84
579
316
84
579
Elongation in 2" (50.80 mm)
Hardness in Rockwell B
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Yield Strength
ksi
MPa
45
50
42
42
310
345
290
290
Elongation Hardness
25
25
55
50
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
B80
B85
B80
B79
NONferrous (No Iron) Alloys
• Cu Alloys
• Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm 3
(costume jewelry, coins,
-Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant)
-solid sol. or precip.
Bronze: Sn, Al, Si, Ni are
strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity
aircraft parts
(bushings, landing
& packaging)
gear)
• Mg Alloys
NonFerrous
Cu-Be:
-very low : 1.7g/cm 3
Alloys
precip. hardened
-ignites easily
for strength
-aircraft, missles
• Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm 3
• Refractory metals
-high melting T
-Nb, Mo, W, Ta
vs 7.9 for steel
• Noble metals
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-oxid./corr. resistant
-space applic.
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Process: Iron Ore → Steel
Iron Ore
gas
refractory
vessel
layers of coke
and iron ore
air
slag
Molten iron
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Coke
Limestone
BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
C+O2 CO2
reduction of iron ore to metal
CO2 +C 2CO
3CO+Fe 2O3 2Fe+3CO 2
purification
CaCO 3 CaO+CO 2
CaO + SiO 2 +Al2O3 slag
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Metal Fabrication Methods-I
CASTING
FORMING
• Forging
• Rolling
(wrenches, crankshafts)
(I-beams, rails)
force
die
Ao blank
Ad often at
elev. T
• Drawing
force
• Extrusion
(rods, wire, tubing)
die
Ao
Ad
die
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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JOINING
Adapted from
Fig. 11.7,
Callister 6e.
(rods, tubing)
tensile
force
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
6
Forming (Working) Temperature
 Hot Working
 Cold Working
• recrystallization
• less energy to deform
• Oxidation 
poor finish
• lower strength
• Strain Hardens
• More Energy to
Deform
• Little Oxidation
• Better Dim Control
Forged
Frature
 Cold Working → AnIsotropic MicroStrucure
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Swaged
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Metal Fabrication Methods-II
FORMING
CASTING
• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks)
• Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster
die formed
around wax
prototype
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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JOINING
• Die Casting
(high volume, low T alloys)
• Continuous Casting
(simple slab shapes)
molten
solidified
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Metal Fabrication Methods-III
FORMING
• Powder Processing
(materials w/low ductility)
pressure
heat
area
contact
CASTING
JOINING
• Welding
(when one large part is
impractical)
filler metal (melted)
basemetal (melted)
fused base metal
heat affected zone
unaffected
unaffected
piece 1 piece 2
densify
• Heat affected zone:
point contact
at low T
densification
by diffusion at
higher T
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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(region in which the
microstructure has been
changed).
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Metals - Thermal Processing
 ANNEALING  Heat to Tanneal, then Cool Slowly
•Stress Relief : Reduce
stress caused by:
-plastic deformation
-nonuniform cooling
-phase transform.
• Spheroidize (steels):
Make very soft steels for
good machining. Heat just
below T E & hold for
15-25h.
Types of
Annealing
•Process Anneal :
Negate effect of
cold working by
(recovery/
recrystallization)
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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• Full Anneal (steels):
Make soft steels for
good forming by heating
to get g, then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
•Normalize (steels):
Deform steel with large
grains, then normalize
to make grains small.
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Steel Heat
Treating
800
Austenite (stable)
T(°C)
TE
A
P
a) Annealing
•
Forms Pearlite
b) Quenching
•
Tempers toward
Spheroidite
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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B
A
400
Forms Martensite
c) Tempering
Martensite
•
600
0%
M+A
200
50%
M+A
90%
a)
b)
10
-1
10
10
3
time (s)
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
10
5
c)
Hardenability - Steels
 Depends on Ability to form martensite
 Jominy end quench test to measure Hardenability
1”
4”
Hardness, HRC
specimen
(heated to g
phase field)
24°C water
flat ground
RockWell
Hardness
 Hardness versus distance
from the quenched end
Distance from quenched end
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Hardness, HRC
Jominy-Hardness vs Position
60
Misses A→P Band; All g Turns to
Martensite
40
20
0
1
2
distance from quenched end (in)
3
T(°C)
0%
100 %
600
400
200
Passes Completely Thru the A→P
Band at Lower-T, Yielding 100%,
and Finer, Pearlite
M(start)
A M
0 M(finish)
0.1
1
Passes Completely Thru the A→P
Band at Higher-T, Yielding 100%,
and Coarser Pearlite
10
100
1000
Time (s)
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Partially Intersects A→P Band. About
20% of g forms Pearlite; the
Remaining 80% forms Martensite
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Hardenability vs Composition
 Jominy End-Quench
Test for 0.4%C Stl
Hardness, HRC
Cooling rate (°C/s)
100 10
3
2
60
40
T(°C)
600
A
400
100
4340
800
80
%M
50
4140
8640
200
0 -1
10 10
B
TE
shift from
A to B due
to alloying
M(start)
M(90%)
103 105 Time (s)
 “Alloy Steels“
• contain Ni, Cr, Mo
(0.2 to 2wt%)
• These elements shift
the "nose“ of A→P Band
• 4140, 4340,
5140, 8640
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
• Martensite is easier to
Form with alloying
Bruce Mayer, PE
5140
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)
28
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Quenching Medium & Geometry
 Effect of Quenching Medium
Medium
air
oil
water
Severity of Quench
small
moderate
large
Hardness
small
moderate
large
 Effect of Geometry → When Surface:Volume Ratio
Increases
• COOLING RATE and HARDNESS INcreases
Position Cooling rate
center
small
surface
large
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Hardness
small
large
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Precipitation Hardening
 Concept: Particles
Impede Dislocations
• e.g.; Al-Cu System
 Procedure
• Pt A: Solution heat treat
– All θ Disolves (goes into
Solution) to Form α-Only
• Pt B: Quench to Room
Temperature
– Freeze in the α-Only
Structure
 SuperSaturated α
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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• Pt C: Precipitation
– Reheat to nucleate
small θ crystals within
α Matrix
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Precipitation Hardening cont.
 Time-Temperature Plot for Age (Precipitation)
Hardening Temp.Pt A (sol’n heat treat)
Pt C (precipitate θ)
Time
Pt B
 Other Age Hardening Alloy Systems
• Cu-Be
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Age Hardened Properties
 Example = 2014 Al → 4%-Cu Alloyed
500
400
300
149°C
204°C
200
1min
1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time (h)
• σu Peaks with
Precipitation Time
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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%EL (2in sample)
tensile strength (MPa)
30
20
10
204°C
149°C
0
1min
1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time (h)
• %EL reaches minimum
with precipitation time
• Increasing T accelerates
Ageing process
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Over Ageing → Lg Precipitates
 Optimum Ageing
Yields Fine
Dispersion of
Precipitates
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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 Over-Ageing
Results in
Agglomeration of
Precipitates
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
OverAging Explained – Al/Cu
a
a
a 
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Aluminum Soln/Age Tempers
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Summary – Apps & Processing
 Steels: Increase σu, Hardness
(and cost) by adding
• C (low alloy steels)
• Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
• Ductility usually DEcreases w/additions
 Non-ferrous Alloys:
• Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, Noble metals
 Fabrication techniques:
• forming, casting, joining
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Summary – Apps & Processing
 Hardenability
• Increases With Alloy Content
 Precipitation hardening
• effective means to Increase Strength in Al,
Cu, and Mg alloys.
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
WhiteBoard Work
 None Today
 See
Appendices
• UNS and
SuperAlloys
• Cast Iron
Microstructure of Rene 80 precipitation hardening nickel alloy showing
intergranular carbide particles (white irregular areas) and brown, gamma
prime particles in the nickel alloy base metal. Kallings Etch, 400X
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Engineering 45
- Appendix UNS
SuperAlloys
Bruce Mayer, PE
Licensed Electrical & Mechanical Engineer
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Unified Numbering System
 The UNS establishes a series of
designations for metals and alloys.
 Each UNS designation consists of a
SINGLE-LETTER prefix followed by
FIVE digits.
 In most cases the letter is suggestive of
the family of metals identified: for
example, F for cast irons, T for tool
steel, S for stainless steels.
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
UNS Series Descriptions
UNS Series
Metal System
A00001 to A99999
Aluminum and Al Alloys
C00001 to C99999
Copper and copper alloys
D00001 to D99999
Specified mech. property steels
E00001 to E99999
Rare earth and rare earthlike
metals and alloys
F00001 to F99999
Cast irons
G00001 to G99999
AISI and SAE carbon and alloy
steels
H00001 to H99999
AISI and SAE H-steels
J00001 to J99999
Cast steels
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
UNS Series Descriptions
UNS Series
Metal System
K00001 to K99999
Miscellaneous steels and ferrous
alloys
L00001 to L99999
Low-melting metals and alloys
M00001 to M99999
Miscellaneous nonferrous metals
and alloys
N00001 to N99999
Nickel and nickel alloys
P00001 to P99999
Precious metals and alloys
R00001 to R99999
Reactive and refractory metals
and alloys
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
UNS Series Descriptions
UNS Series
Metal System
S00001 to S99999
Heat and corrosion resistant
(stainless) steels
T00001 to T99999
Tool steels, wrought and cast
W00001 to W99999
Welding filler metals
Z00001 to Z99999
Zinc and zinc alloys
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
UNS For Low Carbon Steels
 Consider the UNS G-Series → AISI and
SAE carbon and alloy steels
 These Steels have Nine SubGroups
Based on the Primary Alloying Element
• 1 - Plain Carbon
(not an alloy steel)
• 2 - Nickel
• 6 - Chromium and
Vanadium
• 7 – Tungsten
• 3 - Chromium and
Nickel
• 4 – Molybdenum
• 8 - Nickel, Chromium
and Molybdenum
• 9 - Silicon and
Manganese
• 5 - Chromium
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
UNS Embedded Info
 Sometimes but Not Always, the UNS
Number contains Alloying Information
 For the Low Carbon Steels in Particular
G10400 = G 1 0 40 0
carbon and
alloy steels
Future
Use
Plain Steel
0% Alloying
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
45
0.40% Carbon
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
AISI/SAE↔UNS X-Consistency
AISI 1095 = UNS G10950
AISI 4340 = UNS G43400
etc.
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
NONferrous Metals
 Commercially Significant Non-IronBased Metals
 Aluminum and its
Alloys
 Gold
 Beryllium
 Indium
 Cobalt and its
Alloys
 Iridium
 Cobalt Based
SuperAlloys
 Copper and its
Alloys
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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 Hafnium
 Lead and its Alloys
 Magnesium and
Alloys
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
NONferrous Metals cont.1
 Commercially Significant
Non-Iron-Based Metals
 Molybdenum
 Ruthenium
 Nickel and Alloys
 Silver
 Nickel Based
SuperAlloys
 Tantalum
 Osmium
 Tin and its Alloys
 Platinum
 Titanium and its
Alloys
 Rhenium
 Thorium
 Rhodium
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
NONferrous Metals cont.2
 Commercially Significant Non-IronBased Metals
 Tungsten
 Vanadium
 Zinc and its alloys
 Zirconium and its
Alloys
• Zr has Very Low
Neutron Cross-Section
– Use as
Nuclear Fuel Rods
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
SuperAlloys
 Three Main Types
• Cobalt-Based
• Nickel Based
• Nickel+Iron Based
– Less Expensive
 Major Alloying
Element = Cr
 Other Significant
Alloying Elements =
Mo, Al
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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 Performance
• Able to maintain high
strengths at high
temperatures
• Good corrosion and
oxidation resistance
at high temperatures
(Cr, Al)
• Good resistance to
creep and rupture at
high temperatures
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Ni-Based SuperAlloys
 Since 1950, these alloys have
predominated in the range 750-980°C
• Due to the presence of very stable g’
ordered FCC precipitate (Ni3Al,Ti)
– g’ provides high temperature strength thru the
Precipitation-Strengthening Mechanism
 The g’ phase in Co-based
superalloys dissolves
at 815-1050°C
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Co-Based SuperAlloys
 Exhibit superior hot corrosion and strength
characteristics at temperatures 980-1100°C
 Operating temperatures of the turbine and
combustion section
 Co-based alloys sometimes used in the lower
range of 750°C in preference to Ni-based
superalloys
 Can be air or argon cast and are less
expensive than the vacuum-processed
Nickel alloys
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
SuperAlloy Examples
 Haynes-25 = L605 = UNS R30605
Chemical Analysis of Haynes 25™ (UNS R30605)
C
MN
P
.05 -.15
1.0 -2.0
S
Si
.4 .03 .4
Cr
Ni
19.0 -21.0
9.0 -11.0
Alloy L605
Mo Cu Co Cb Ti Al Fe
W
3.0
bal
Other
14.0 -16.0
• Haynes 25™ has an excellent temperature strength and oxidation
resistance to 2000 ºF.
 Inconel 601 = UNS N06601
Chemical Analysis of Inconel 601® (UNS N06601)
C
MN
.05
.3
P
S
Si
Cr
Ni
.2
22.5
61.5
Mo
Cu
Co
5
Cb+Ta
Ti
Al
Fe
1.4
14.1
Other
Other
• Inconel 601® is a standard engineering material and has a great
resistance to heat and corrosion. Inconel 601® also has high strength
and good workability. Inconel 601® can be used in the heat-treating
industry for muffles, furnace components, and for
heat-treating baskets and trays.
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Aluminum Alloy Numbering
 Consider Al Alloy UNS A13560
• First Digit (A)
– An alpha indicator of base metal.
Always A for aluminum
• Second Digit (1)
– Indicates a modification of the original alloy
• Third Digit (3)
2XX Copper
8XX Tin
– Designates
alloy
family
5XX
Magnesium
3XX Si w/ Cu
and/or Mg
6XX Unused
9XX
Others
4XX Silicon
7XX Zinc
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Aluminum Alloy No.s cont.
 Consider Al Alloy UNS A13560
• Fourth and Fifth Digits (56)
– Assigned ID number for the particular alloy
• Sixth Digit (0)
– 0 Casting Specification
– 1 Ingot Specification
– 2 More Tightly Refined Ingot Specification
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Aluminum Alloy Examples
 Aluminium 6061-T6 = UNS A96061
Component
Wt. %
Component
Wt. %
Component
Wt. %
Al
95.8 - 98.6
Mg
0.8 - 1.2
Si
0.4 - 0.8
Cr
0.04 - 0.35
Mn
Max 0.15
Ti
Max 0.15
Cu
0.15 - 0.4
Other, each Max 0.05
Zn
Max 0.25
Fe
Max 0.7
Other, total Max 0.15
• Material Notes:
General 6061 characteristics and uses: Excellent joining characteristics,
good acceptance of applied coatings. Combines relatively high strength,
good workability, and high resistance to corrosion; widely available. The T8
and T9 tempers offer better chipping characteristics over the T6 temper.
• Applications: Aircraft fittings, camera lens mounts, couplings, marines
fittings and hardware, electrical fittings and connectors, decorative or misc.
hardware, hinge pins, magneto parts, brake pistons, hydraulic pistons,
appliance fittings, valves and valve parts; bike frames
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
All Done for Today
Progress Against Jet Engine Turbine Blade CREEP
Blade made out of a
nickel-base superalloy
with polycrystalline a
microstructure The
creep life of the blades
is limited by the grain
boundaries which are
deformation paths.
Blade made out of a nickelbase superalloy tha has
been directionally-solidified,
resulting in a columnar grain
structure which mitigates
grain-boundary induced
creep.
Blade made out of a nickelbase superalloy that has
been Spiral-solidified,
resulting in a single grain
structure which eliminates
grain-boundary induced
creep.
Bruce Mayer, PE
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
57
Blade is directionallysolidified via a SPIRAL
SELECTOR, which
permits only ONE crystal
to grow into the blade.
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
http://www.metallography.com/types.htm
Iron Ore to Steel

To produce steel, the first step is to make what is called pig iron. Alternating layers of iron ore, limestone (a
mineral used to purify the mixture), and coke (coal that has been prepared specially for this process) are
poured into a blast furnace. Hot air at 1200 degrees F is then blasted through the exhaust vent to create the
combustion process. The coke then burns the mixture at 3000 degrees F and two reactions occur. The first
reaction is when the carbon from coke and the oxygen from the air combine to liberate the metallic iron and
make it liquid, directing it to the bottom of the furnace. The second reaction is when the limestone attracts
the impurities. These impurities float to the top of the melted pig iron and is siphoned off as slag. Every few
hours, the melted pig iron is removed from the bottom of the furnace and further processed.

Pig iron contains 4 to 5% carbon which makes it much too brittle to be used as is. Reducing the extra
carbon in the pig iron will convert it to steel. This process is called "refining". Just as crude oil is refined into
gasoline or kerosene pig iron is refined into steel.


Refining pig iron into steel by reduction of the the carbon by the “basic oxygen” furnace steel making
process.
In this process, the amount of carbon is decreased by regulating the amount of oxygen that is injected into
the pig iron. The oxygen removes the unwanted carbon by oxidation. This unwanted carbon, together with a
mixture of other impurities constitutes the slag and is removed from the furnace.

COKE = mosly Coal → C-H solid
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
58
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Engineering 45
- Appendix -
Cast Iron
Bruce Mayer, PE
Licensed Electrical & Mechanical Engineer
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
59
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Cast Iron Summary
 Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
• more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
 low melting Temperature (also brittle) so
easiest to cast
 Cementite decomposes to ferrite +
graphite
• Fe3C →3Fe (α) + C (graphite)
– generally a slow process
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
60
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
True Fe-C Equilibrium Diagram
T(°C)
 “Graphite
formation
promoted by
•
•
1600
L
1400
Si > 1 wt%
slow cooling
g
Austenite
1200
Liquid +
Graphite
g +L
1153°C
4.2 wt% C
1000
g + Graphite
ag
800
0.65
740°C
600
400
(Fe)
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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a + Graphite
0
1
2
3
90
4
Co , wt% C
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
100
Types of Cast Iron
 Gray Cast Iron
• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle under tension
• stronger under compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant
 Ductile Cast Iron
• add Mg or Ce
• graphite in nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite - better
ductility
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
62
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Types of Cast Iron
 White Iron
• <1wt% Si so harder but brittle
• more cementite
 Malleable Iron
• heat treat at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• more ductile
• graphite in nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite - better
ductility
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
63
Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt
Cast Iron Production
Engineering-45: Materials of Engineering
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Bruce Mayer, PE
BMayer@ChabotCollege.edu • ENGR-45_Lec-25_Metal_Apps-Processing.ppt