GEOGRAPHIC MODELS
Connie Hudgeons
College Board Two-Day AP/Pre-AP Social Studies Conference
February 20-21, 2009
San Antonio, Texas
Geographer
Content Area
Model
Wegener
Pattison
Geography: Nature and
Perspectives
Plate Tectonic Theory
Four Geographic Traditions
Possibilism
Determinism
Malthus
Population
Malthusian Theory
Neo-Malthusian Theory
Laws of Migration
Demographic Transition Model
Boserup’s Thesis
Sauer
Cultural Patterns
Cultural Landscape
Conrad-Demarest
MacKinder
Spykman
Mahan
Rostow
Ratzel
Wallerstein
Political Organization
of Space
Stages of Empire Building
Heartland Theory
Rimland Theory
Sea Power Theory
Model of Economic Development
Organic Theory of Nations
World Systems Theory
Ravenstein
Thompson
Boserup
Geographer
Content Area
Model
Von Thunen
Burgess
Boserup
Agricultural and
Rural Land Use
Agricultural Model
Concentric Zone Model
Boserup’s Thesis
Carey
Castells
Castells & Hall
Kondratieff
Losch
Rostow
Wallerstein
Weber
Industrialization
and Economic
Development
Gravity Model
Space of Flows
Technopolis
Long Wave Theory
Agglomeration/Spatial Influence
Model of Economic Development
Core-Periphery Model
Industry Location/Least Cost/Agglomeration
Burgess
Hoyt
Harris-Ullman
Christaller
Borchert
Cities and Urban
Land Use
Concentric Zone Model
Urban Sector Model
Multiple Nuclei Model
Central Place Theory
Stages of Evolution of American Metropolis
The Club of Rome
EVERYTHING
World3
Geography
Its Nature And Perspective
Four Traditions of Geography
The Four Traditions were outlined by William Pattison at the
NCGE Opening Session on November 29, 1963.
Tradition
Core Concepts
Spatial Tradition
Mapping, Spatial Analysis, Boundaries & Densities, Movement &
Transportation, Central Place Theory, Areal Distribution. Spatial
Patterns
Area Studies
Descriptions of Regions & Areas, World Regional Geography,
International Trends & Relationships, Regional Differences,
Chorographic Tradition
Man-Land
Human impact on Nature, Nature impact on Humans, Natural
Hazards, Perception of Environment, Environmentalism, Cultural,
Political and Population Geography
Earth Science
Physical Geography, The Spheres – litho, hydro, atmo, & bio.
Earth-Sun interaction, Earth as Home, Geology, mineralogy,
paleontology, glaciology, geomorphology & meteorology
Environmental Determinism


Definition: The belief that the physical environment has played a major
role in the cultural development of a people or locale. Also called
environmentalism.
Examples: In previous years, environmental determinism was popular
and it was acceptable to believe that cultures were ruled by their
environment.
The well-known contrast between the energetic people of the most progressive
parts of the temperate zone and the inert inhabitants of the tropics and even of
intermediate regions, such as Persia, is largely due to climate . . . the people of
the cyclonic regions rank so far above those of the other parts of the world that
they are the natural leaders.
Ellsworth Huntington, Principles of Human Geography, 1940
Environmental Possibilism

A philosophy seen in contrast to environmental determinism that
declares that although environmental conditions do have an
influence on human and cultural development, people have varied
possibilities in how they decide to live within a given environment.
Even possibilism has its limitations, for it encourages a line of inquiry that
starts with the physical environment and asks what it allows. Yet human
cultures have frequently pushed the boundaries of what was once thought
to be environmentally possible by virtue of their own ideas and ingenuity.
Harm de Blij, Human Geography, 7th ed., page 33.
PLATE TECTONICS
The Best Source of information
USGS
This Dynamic Earth:
The Story of Plate Tectonics
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
Population
World Population
World population is in a state of very rapid increase. This may be expressed is
various ways. On arithmetic scale population appears to be in an explosive stage.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_14/lec_14.html
If we plot human population on a log scale there appears to be 3 phases brought
about by levels of historical development:
Thomas Malthus
Happy 243rd B-Day – Feb 14 or 17, 1766!!
In 1798, hastily written text, An Essay on the Principle of Population
as it Affects the Future Improvement of Society, with Remarks on the
Speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, and Other Writers, was
published by Thomas Robert Malthus.
Often known today as the "patron saint of demography" and while
some argue that his contributions to population studies were
unremarkable, Malthus did indeed cause population and
demographics to become a topic of serious academic study.
Two Views on Populations
Alarmists - Population bomb Mass starvation (Paddock, 1975 wrote
Famine 1979) Major world issue, the only real issue is the
disappearance of world surpluses
Technocrats - Science and technology will find the way. Famines
are decreasing. People are better fed than ever before. World food
supply shows the same graph as world population.
Population Dynamics
Growth is determined by:
Biological capacity of woman to bear children
Natural length of life
Ecological factors that Produce food
Determine fertility
Determine mortality
Malthus noted that food production increases arithmetically (e.g. 1, 2,
3, 4) while human population increases geometrically (e.g. 1, 2, 4, 8).
Since human population is determined ultimately by the food supply,
Malthus thought population would be brought in balance only by
famine and pestilence.
He never foresaw the tremendous growth of food with modern
agriculture due to new lands and the scientific revolution.
Malthusian predictions have not yet come to past.
According to Thomas Malthus, preventative checks are those that
affect the birth rate and include marrying at a later age (moral
restraint), abstaining from procreation, birth control, and
homosexuality. Malthus, a clergyman in the Church of England,
considered birth control and homosexuality to be vices and
inappropriate (but nonetheless practiced).
Positive checks are those that increase the death rate. These
include disease, war, disaster, and finally, when other checks don't
reduce population, famine.
Malthus felt that the fear of famine or the development of famine
was also a major impetus to reduce the birth rate. He indicates that
potential parents are less likely to have children when they know
that their children are likely to starve.
Malthusian Checks
http://www.ditext.com/flew/malthus-1.jpg
Diagram of Malthus's theory of population growth.
http://library.thinkquest.org/C002291/high/future/images/malthusgraph.gif
Population Growth
Malthus
Marx
http://www.southtexascollege.edu/nilsson/4_ES_Exams_f/chapter7/f7-04_a_thomas_malthus_.jpg
"In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic
inquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being
well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes
on from long- continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at
once struck me that under these circumstances favorable variations would tend
to be preserved, and unfavorable ones to be destroyed. The results of this
would be the formation of a new species. Here, then I had at last got a theory
by which to work". Charles Darwin, from his autobiography. (1876)
This often quoted passage reflects the significance Darwin affords Malthus in
formulating his theory of Natural Selection. What "struck" Darwin in Essay on the
Principle of Population (1798) was Malthus's observation that in nature plants and
animals produce far more offspring than can survive, and that Man too is capable of
overproducing if left unchecked. Malthus concluded that unless family size was
regulated, man's misery of famine would become globally epidemic and eventually
consume Man. Malthus' view that poverty and famine were natural outcomes of
population growth and food supply was not popular among social reformers who
believed that with proper social structures, all ills of man could be eradicated.
Neo Malthusian Theory
Those who continue to agree with Malthus’ concerns are sometimes called
Neo Malthusians. They point out that human suffering is now occurring on a
scale that Malthus could not have imagined. They argue that it is not enough
to assert that the current state is merely an inevitable stage in world
population.
The Neo-Malthusian population theory claims that poor nations are stuck in a
cycle of poverty that will not be broken without some type of preventative
measures.
Malthus's model is based upon a relationship between both population growth
as well as economic development. Some empirical studies indicate that the
population model was flawed because the two main variables (population
growth and level of per-capita income) have no clear link.
Boserup’s Thesis
Ester Boserup was a Danish economist and writer. She wrote several
books covering world economics. Her most notable book is The Conditions
of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under
Population Pressure (Chicago, Aldine, 1965). This book presented a
"dynamic analysis embracing all types of primitive agriculture."
In doing so, she upended the assumption dating back to Malthus’s time (and
still held in many quarters) that agricultural methods determine population
via food supply.
Boserup’s research indicated that population determines
agricultural methods.
Boserup’s theory opposes Malthus by saying that the agricultural
methods depend on the size of the population. Malthus states that
in times when food is not sufficient for everyone, the extra
people will have to die.
Boserup states that in those times of pressure people will find out
ways to increase the productivity of food by increasing
workforce, machinery, fertilizers, etc. A major point of her book
is that "necessity is the mother of invention".
.
Malthus
Boserup
http://www.geographyalltheway.com/igcse_geography/population_settlement/population/imagese
tc/malthus_graph.jpg
Although Boserup is widely regarded as being anti-Malthusian, both
her insights and those of Malthus can be comfortably combined within
the same general theoretical framework.
She argued that when population density is low enough to allow it, land
tends to be used intermittently, with heavy reliance on fire to clear
fields and fallowing to restore fertility (often called slash and burn
farming).
Numerous studies have shown such methods to be favorable in total
workload and also efficiency (output versus input).
In Boserup’s theory, it is only when rising population density curtails
the use of fallowing (and therefore the use of fire) that fields are moved
towards annual cultivation.
Contending with insufficiently fallowed, less fertile plots, covered
with grass or bushes rather than forest, mandates expanded efforts at
fertilizing, field preparation, weed control, and irrigation.
These changes often induce agricultural innovation but increase
marginal labor cost to the farmer as well:
the higher the rural population density, the more hours the farmer
must work for the same amount of produce.
Therefore workloads tend to rise while efficiency drops. This process
of raising production at the cost of more work at lower efficiency is
what Boserup describes as "agricultural intensification".
The theory has been instrumental in understanding agricultural
patterns in developing countries, although it is highly simplified and
generalized.
This website has a Resources section with articles relating to
Malthus, Erlich, the Club of Rome, Boserup, and Simon.
There are several web-based activities covering population
theories.
http://www.geographyalltheway.com/ib_geography/ib_re
sources/ib_population_resources.htm
Demographic Transition Model
The Demographic transition model (DTM) is a model used to represent the
process of explaining the transformation of countries from high birth rates and
high death rates to low birth rates and low death rates as part of the economic
development of a country from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economy
It is based on an interpretation begun in 1929 by the American demographer
Warren Thompson of prior observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death
rates in industrialized societies over the past two hundred years.
Originally designed with three stages, it is now common to see the model with
five or more stages.
Sociological Explanation of Population Growth
Demographic transition is the change
from a low population growth rate
based on high or medieval birth and
high death rates to a low population
growth rate based on low (modern)
birth and death rates. During this
transition, death rate starts to drop
faster than birth rate which leads to
an explosive population increase.
Birth rate is the number of live births
per 1000 population.
In l875 birth rate was in the high 30s;
in l930 the birth rate declined to
between 15 and 20 (1.5–2.0%).
The transition involves four stages, or possibly five.
In stage one, pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates are high
and roughly in balance.
In stage two, that of a developing country, the death rates drop rapidly
due to improvements in food supply and sanitation, which increase life
spans and reduce disease.
These changes usually come about due to improvements in farming
techniques, access to technology, basic healthcare, and education. Without
a corresponding fall in birth rates this produces an imbalance, and the
countries in this stage experience a large increase in population.
In stage three, birth rates fall due to access to contraception, increases in
wages, urbanization, a reduction in subsistence agriculture, an increase in
the status and education of women, a reduction in the value of children's
work, an increase in parental investment in the education of children and
other social changes. Population growth begins to level off.
During stage four there are both low birth rates and low death rates. Birth
rates may drop to well below replacement level as has happened in
countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan, leading to a shrinking
population, a threat to many industries that rely on population growth.
As the large group born during stage two ages, it creates an economic
burden on the shrinking working population. Death rates may remain
consistently low or increase slightly due to increases in lifestyle diseases
due to low exercise levels and high obesity and an aging population in
developed countries.
THE CLASSIC STAGES OF DEMOGRAPHIC
TRANSITION
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Birth rate
Natural
increase
Death rate
Time
Note: Natural increase is produced from the excess of births over deaths.
Lesson Plan: The Demographic Transition, Activity One
Five stage Model
The original Demographic Transition model has just four stages.
Some theorists consider that a fifth stage is needed to represent countries that
have undergone the economic transition from manufacturing based industries
into service and information based industries called deindustrialization.
Countries such as United Kingdom (the earliest nation universally recognized
as reaching Stage Five), Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and most
notably Japan, whose populations are now reproducing well below their
replacement levels, are not producing enough children to replace their parents'
generation.
China, South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand and Cuba are also
below replacement levels, but this is not producing a fall in population yet in
these countries, because their populations are relatively young due to strong
growth in the recent past.
The population of southern Europe is already falling, and Japan and some of
western Europe will soon begin to fall without significant immigration.
However, many countries that now have sub-replacement fertility did not reach
this stage gradually but rather suddenly as a result of economic crisis brought
on by the post-communist transition in the late 1980s and the 1990s.
Examples include Russia, Ukraine, Romania, and the Baltic States. The
population of these countries is falling due to fertility decline, emigration and,
particularly in Russia, increased male mortality
As with all models, this is an idealized picture of population change in these
countries.
The model is a generalization that applies to these countries as a group and may
not accurately describe all individual cases.
The extent to which it applies to less-developed societies today remains to be
seen. Many countries such as China, Brazil and Thailand have passed through
the DTM very quickly due to fast social and economic change.
Some countries, particularly African countries, appear to be stalled in the
second stage due to stagnant development and the effect of AIDS.
Ravenstein: Laws of Migration 1885
The rise of the industrial age during the second half of the nineteenth century
revolutionized life and working patterns for millions of people across Europe and
North America. The disruptive influence of factories, railroads and economies of
scale changed both the nature of opportunity and where it could be found. Millions
of people were uprooted from their traditional homes and livelihoods and hit the
road in search of a better life or to escape one that had become intolerable.
In a paper delivered to the Journal of the Statistical Society in England in 1885,
Ravenstein outlined a series of "laws of migration" that attempted to explain and
predict migration patterns both within and between nations. Ravenstein's basic
laws, and additional laws subsequently derived from his work, continue to serve as
the starting point for virtually all serious models of migration patterns over a
century later.
1) Most migrants only proceed a short distance, and toward centers of
absorption.
2) As migrants move toward absorption centers, they leave "gaps" that
are filled up by migrants from more remote districts, creating
migration flows that reach to "the most remote corner of the
kingdom.“
3) The process of dispersion is inverse to that of absorption.
4) Each main current of migration produces a compensating countercurrent.
5) Migrants proceeding long distances generally go by preference to one
of the great centers of commerce or industry.
6) The natives of towns are less migratory than those of the rural parts
of the country.
7) Females are more migratory than males.
At the heart of Ravenstein's
emerging migration model were the
concepts of absorption and
dispersion. He defined a county of
absorption as having "a population
more or less in excess of the
number of its natives enumerated
throughout the kingdom." In other
words, it was a country that on the
whole took in more people than it
gave up. A county of dispersion,
then, would be one of the counties
that on the whole gave up
population over time, or in
Ravenstein's words, "the population
[of the county] falls short of the
number of [its] natives enumerated
throughout the kingdom."
Ravenstein's laws immediately created a stir, with some complaining that he
had identified patterns of migration, but that this was not the same as
discovering "natural laws." Four years, later, he presented another paper that
looked at migration patterns elsewhere in Europe and North America, in
which he highlighted an exception to migration patterns based upon the
American frontier experience. He noted that people are more willing to travel
long distances to occupy unsettled land than they would in a country more
fully settled, as was the case in the United Kingdom.
Modified from www.csiss.org
CULTURE
Sauer & Cultural Landscape
The geographer Otto Schluter is credited with having first formally used “cultural
landscape” as an academic term in the early twentieth century. In 1908, Schluter
argued that by defining geography as a Landschaftskunde (landscape science) this
would give geography a logical subject matter shared by no other discipline.
He defined two forms of landscape:
 the Urlandschaft (trans. ‘natural landscape’) or landscape that existed before
major human induced changes
 and the Kulturlandschaft (trans. 'cultural landscape') a landscape created by
human culture.
The major task of geography was to trace the changes in these two landscapes.
Carl Sauer was probably the most influential in promoting and developing the
idea of cultural landscapes.
Sauer was determined to stress the agency of culture as a force in shaping the
visible features of the Earth’s surface in delimited areas. Within his definition,
the physical environment retains a central significance, as the medium with
and through which human cultures act.
His classic definition of a 'cultural landscape' reads as follows:
“The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a
cultural group. Culture is the agent, the natural are the medium, the
cultural landscape is the result“
Since Schulter's first formal use of the term, and Sauer's effective
promotion of the idea, the concept of 'cultural landscapes has been
variously used, applied, debated, developed and refined within
academia.
In 1992, the World Heritage Committee elected to convene a meeting
of the 'specialists' to advise and assist redraft the Committee's
Operational Guidelines to include 'cultural landscapes' as an option
for heritage listing properties that were neither purely natural nor
purely cultural. Since then, UNESCO has created a list of 878 World
Heritage Sites to preserve humanity’s heritage.
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list
Sauer was a fierce critic of environmental determinism, which was
the prevailing theory in geography when he began his career. He
proposed instead an approach variously called "landscape
morphology" or "cultural history."
This approach involved the inductive gathering of facts about the
human impact on the landscape over time. Sauer rejected
positivism, preferring particularist and historicist understandings of
the world. He drew on the work of anthropologist Alfred Kroeber
and was accused of introducing a "superorganic" concept of culture
into geography.
Sauer expressed concern about the way modern capitalism and
centralized government were destroying the cultural diversity and
environmental health of the world.
http://www.harpercollege.edu/mhealy/geogres/maps/worldgif/wwhearth.gif
A portion of Clark Wissler's map of the
culture areas of the Native American United States.
The map, which is designed to highlight similarities in food gathering techniques, lists seven
culture areas: the woodsmen of the eastern forests, the hunters of the plains, the Navaho
shepherds, the Pueblo farmers, the desert dwellers, the seed gatherers and the northern fishermen.
Map Source: "Three Maps of Indian Country," United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, Lawrence, Kansas:
Haskell Institute (1948).
National Geographic Expeditions Lesson Plan
The Evolution of Cultural Landscape
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/lessons/06/g912/cultural.html
POLITICAL
MacKinder
Sir Halford John Mackinder was a British geographer who wrote a paper in 1904
called "The Geographical Pivot of History." Mackinder's paper suggested that the
control of Eastern Europe was vital to control of the world. He formulated his
hypothesis as:
Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland
Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island
Who rules the World-Island commands the world
Mackinder's Heartland (also known as the Pivot Area) is the core area of Eurasia,
and the World-Island is all of Eurasia (both Europe and Asia).
According to Mackinder, the earth's land surface was divisible into:
• The World-Island, comprising the interlinked continents of Europe, Asia,
and Africa. This was the largest, most populous, and richest of all possible
land combinations.
• The offshore islands, including the British Isles and the islands of Japan.
• The outlying islands, including the continents of North America, South
America, and Australia.
• The Heartland lay at the centre of the world island, stretching from the
Volga to the Yangtze and from the Himalayas to the Arctic. Mackinder's
Heartland was the area ruled by the Russian Empire and then by the Soviet
Union, minus the area around Vladivostok.
Spykman
In 1942, Nicholas Spykman proposed a theory which countered
Mackinder's Heartland Theory. Spykman stated that Eurasia's Rimland,
the coastal areas or buffer zone, is the key to controlling the World
Island, not the heartland.
Today we look at the Rimland in terms of its economic strength and
potential. While the book does deal with economic issues, what has
become known as the Rimland Theory deals primarily with military
intervention, control and conquest of the Old World.
The theory was later expanded and refined in a series of lectures which
were transcribed into the book "The Geography of the Peace".
The Rimland is the concept of a geographic area adjacent to the “Heartland” that
is comprised of most of Europe, the Middle East, the Indian sub-continent,
Southeast Asia, and the Far East. This area forms an enveloping geographic ring
around Mackinder’s “Heartland.” In other words, the Rimland essentially
surrounds the central, core region of Eurasia.
http://www.globalresearch.ca/articlePictures/Spykman%20Rimland%20(1944).jpg
Conrad-Demarest Model of Empires
In 1988, Geoffrey Conrad and Arthur Demarest published Religion and Empire the
Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca
Expansionism. Conrad and Demarest have worked in Mesoamerica for 25 years,
leading archaeological excavations and expeditions. They are considered two of the
world's leading experts on the MesoAmerican empires and related anthropological
theory. Their model, based on the Aztecs, can be applied to most empire analysis.
1.
Necessary preconditions for the rise of empires-the region must have:
a) State-level government
b) High agricultural potential of the environment
c) An environmental mosaic
d) Several small states with no clear dominant state (power vacuum)
e) Mutual antagonism among those states
f) Adequate military resources (or a military or technological advantage)
2.
States succeed in empire building if they have an ideology that promotes
personal identification with the state, empire, leader, conquest, and/or
militarism
3.
Characteristics of well-run empires
a) Build roads and transportation systems, canals, ports, etc.
b) Trade increases
c) Cosmopolitan cities-art and education flourish
d) Effective bureaucracy to ensure communication, collect
oversee coinage, ensure the emperor's laws are enforced
e) Common official language (communication)
f) System of justice, law for entire empire
g) Citizenship or rights extend in some degree to conquered;
be some buy-in
taxes,
must
4. Major results of empire:
a) Economic rewards, especially in the early years, redistributed to elite
and trickles down to other classes (esp. merchants, scribes, etc.)
b) Relative stability and prosperity
c) Population increase
5. Empires fall because:
a) Failure or leadership; focus on wealth, etc. not the needs of the state
b) Ideology of expansion and conquest leads to attempting new conquests
beyond a practical limit: overstretching of bureaucracy, military,
resources, communication
c) Lack of new conquests erodes economic base and lessens faith in
ideology that supported the empire
d) Rebellions from within/ challenges from without
Mahan
Although a brilliant naval historian and noted theorist on the importance of
sea power to national defense, Alfred Thayer Mahan hated the sea and
dreaded his duties as a ship's captain.
Mahan was perhaps the most celebrated naval historian of his era, an
influential promoter of United States naval and commercial expansion
during America's rise to world power in the late nineteenth century. As the
author of numerous articles and books, including the landmark The
Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783, Alfred Thayer Mahan
was widely regarded as a brilliant naval theorist. From his writings, readers
would never have guessed, however, that the renowned champion of the
United States Navy hated the sea, and while an active-duty naval officer,
lived in constant fear of ocean storms and colliding ships.
Mahan’s theory was based on three critical elements of seapower:
(1)
(2)
(3)
weapons of war, primarily battleships and their supply bases;
a near monopoly of seaborne commerce from which to draw
wealth, manpower, and supplies; and
a string of colonies to support both of the above.
His theories, however, rested on two serious fallacies.
First, his over-reliance upon the notion of concentrating forces falsely denied
the importance of coastal defense, and undervalued commerce raiding. These
assumptions forced strategists to search for a decisive, war‐winning battle,
often in vain.
Second, he overstated the strategic benefits of controlling seaborne commerce
and colonies.
In peacetime, the components of empire frequently contributed to
wealth and consequently to long‐term strength, in war they often
proved to be liabilities.
Mahan's timeless principles, as enacted along the lines of
late‐nineteenth‐century navalism, had the effect of turning America's
strategic vision of itself on its side and created a world naval power.
Through the implementation of Mahan’s theory, instead of remaining
an unassailable continental power with maritime reach, England
became an overstretched maritime power with global vulnerabilities.
Wallerstein – World Systems Theory
The most well-known version of the world-system approach has been
developed by Immanuel Wallerstein.
Wallerstein analyzed the World System as follows: "A system is defined as
a unit with a single division of labor and multiple cultural systems."
Characteristics of the modern world-system
Proponents of world-systems analysis see the world
stratification system the same way Karl Marx viewed class
(ownership versus non-ownership of the means of production)
and Max Weber viewed class (which, in addition to ownership,
stressed occupational skill level in the production process).
The core nations primarily own and control the major means of
production in the world and perform the higher-level
production tasks. The periphery nations own very little of the
world’s means of production (even when they are located in
periphery nations) and provide less-skilled labor.
Like a class system with a nation, class positions in the world
economy result in an unequal distribution of rewards or
resources. The core nations receive the greatest share of surplus
production, and periphery nations receive the least.
Furthermore, core nations are usually able to purchase raw
materials and other goods from noncore nations at low prices,
while demanding higher prices for their exports to noncore
nations.
Chirot (1986) lists the five most important benefits coming
to core nations from their domination of periphery nations:
Access to a large quantity of raw material
Cheap labor
Enormous profits from direct capital investments
A market for exports
Skilled professional labor through migration of these
people from the noncore to the core
Core nations are:
• The most economically diversified, wealthy, and powerful
• Highly industrialized
• Tend to specialize in information, finance and service industries
• Produce manufactured goods rather than raw materials for export
• More often in the forefront of new technologies and new industries.
• Have more complex and stronger state institutions to manage
economic affairs internally and externally
•Have a sufficient tax base so these state institutions can provide
infrastructure for a strong economy
•Have more means of influence over noncore nations
•Relatively independent of outside control
Periphery nations are
• Least economically diversified
• Tend to depend on one type of economic activity, such as extracting
and exporting raw materials to core nations
•Are often targets for investments from multinational (or transnational)
corporations from core nations that come into the country to
exploit cheap unskilled labor for export back to core nations
•Tend to have a high percentage of their people that are poor and
uneducated.
• High Inequality because of a small upper class that owns most of the
land and has profitable ties to multination corporations
•Have relatively weak institutions with little tax base to support
infrastructure development
•Tend to be extensively influenced by core nations and their
multinational corporations. Many times they are forced to
follow economic policies that favor core nations and harm their
economic
prospects
According to world systems theory, a core nation is dominant over
all the others when it has a lead in three forms of economic
dominance over a period of time:
Productivity dominance allows a country to produce products of
greater quality at a cheaper price compared to other countries.
Productivity dominance may lead to trade do trade dominance.
Now, there is a favorable balance of trade for the dominant nation
since more countries are buying the products of the dominant
country than it is buying from them. Trade dominance may lead
to financial dominance. Now, more money is coming into the
country than going out. Bankers of the dominant nation tend to
receive more control of the world’s financial resources.
Ratzel
Freidrich Ratzel (1844-1904) was a German anthropologist who was a
significant contributor to nineteenth-century theories of diffusion and
migration. He developed criteria by which the formal, non-functional
characteristics of objects could be compared, because it would be
unlikely that these characteristics would have been simultaneously
invented.
Ratzel warned that possible migration or other contact phenomena
should be ruled out in each case before cross-cultural similarities were
attributed to independent invention. He wrote The History of Mankind
in 1896, which was said to be "a solid foundation in anthropological
study" by E. B. Tylor, a competing British cultural evolutionist (Harris
1968:383).
Influenced by thinkers like Darwin and zoologist Ernst Heinrich
Haeckel, Ratzel published several papers. Among them is the essay
Lebensraum (1901) concerning biogeography, creating a foundation
for the uniquely German variant of geopolitics: geopolitik.
Ratzel’s writings coincided with the growth of German industrialism
after the Franco-Prussian war and the subsequent search for markets
that brought it into competition with England. His writings served as
welcome justification for imperial expansion.
Influenced by the American geostrategist Mahan, Ratzel wrote of
aspirations for German naval reach, agreeing that sea power was selfsustaining, as the profit from trade would pay for the merchant
marine, unlike land power.
Ratzel’s key contribution to geopolitik was the expansion on the
biological conception of geography, without a static conception
of borders. States are instead organic and growing, with borders
representing only a temporary stop in their movement. It is not
the state proper that is the organism, but the land in its spiritual
bond with the people who draw sustenance from it. The expanse
of a state’s borders is a reflection of the health of the nation.
Ratzel’s idea of Raum (space) would grow out of his organic state
conception. This early concept of lebensraum was not political or
economic, but spiritual and racial nationalist expansion. The
Raum-motiv is a historically driving force, pushing peoples with
great Kultur to naturally expand.
The state is better understood as a 'natural‘ (organic) rather
than a 'mechanical' phenomenon, with different institutions
performing different functions, and the good health of the
whole being attributable as much to the good working of the
whole as to the contribution of any particular part.
Space, for Ratzel, was a vague concept, theoretically
unbounded. Raum was defined by where German peoples live,
where other weaker states could serve to support German
peoples economically, and where German culture could
fertilize other cultures. However, it ought to be noted that
Ratzel's concept of raum was not overtly aggressive, but
theorized simply as the natural expansion of strong states into
areas controlled by weaker states.
ROSTOW
Included in
Industrialization and
Economic Development
Agriculture & Rural Land Use
Von Thunen
The Von Thunen model of agricultural land use was created by farmer and
amateur economist J.H. Von Thunen (1783-1850) in 1826 (but it wasn't
translated into English until 1966). Von Thunen's model was created before
industrialization and is based on the following limiting assumptions:
• The city is located centrally within an "Isolated State" which is self
sufficient and has no external influences.
• The Isolated State is surrounded by an unoccupied wilderness.
• The land of the State is completely flat and has no rivers or mountains to
interrupt the terrain.
• The soil quality and climate are consistent throughout the State.
• Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods to market via oxcart,
across land, directly to the central city. Therefore, there are no roads.
• Farmers act to maximize profits.
Dairying and intensive farming occur in the ring closest to the city. Since vegetables,
fruit, milk and other dairy products must get to market quickly, they would be
produced close to the city.
Timber and firewood would be produced for
fuel and building materials in the second zone.
Before industrialization (and coal power), wood
was a very important fuel for heating and
cooking.
The third zone consists of extensive fields crops
such as grains for bread. Since grains last longer
than dairy products and are much lighter than
fuel, reducing transport costs, they can be
located further from the city.
Ranching is located in the final ring surrounding
the central city. Animals can be raised far from
the city because they are self-transporting.
Beyond the fourth ring lies the unoccupied
wilderness, which is too great a distance from
the central city for any type of agricultural
product.
BURGESS
The Concentric Zone Model
found in
Urban land use & Cities
INDUSTRIAL &
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Carey - Gravity Model
For decades, social scientists have been using a modified version of
Isaac Newton's Law of Gravitation to predict movement of people,
information, and commodities between cities and even continents.
The gravity model, as social scientists refer to the modified law of
gravitation, takes into account the population size of two places and
their distance. Since larger places attract people, ideas, and
commodities more than smaller places and places closer together have
a greater attraction, the gravity model incorporates these two features.
The relative strength of a bond between two places is determined
by multiplying the population of city A by the population of city
B and then dividing the product by the distance between the two
cities squared.
The Gravity Model formula
population1 x population2
Distance2
Boston
Albuquerque
384736 x 574823
19722
=
221155101728
3888784
=
56869.9
Thus, if we compare the bond between the New York and Los
Angeles metropolitan areas, we first multiply their 1998
populations (20,124,377 and 15,781,273, respectively) to get
317,588,287,391,921.
Then we divide that number by the distance (2462 miles) squared
(6,061,444). The result is 52,394,823.
We can shorten our math by reducing the numbers to the millions
place - 20.12 times 15.78 equals 317.5 and then divide by 6 with
a result of 52.9.
How about El Paso and Los Angles?
They're 712 miles apart, 2.7 times farther than El Paso and
Tucson!
Well, Los Angeles is so large that it provides a huge
gravitational force for El Paso.
Their relative force is 21,888,491, a surprising 2.7 times
greater than the gravitational force between El Paso and
Tucson! (The repetition of 2.7 is simply a coincidence.)
While the gravity model was created to anticipate migration
between cities (and we can expect that more people migrate
between LA and NYC than between El Paso and Tucson), it can
also be used to anticipate the traffic between two places, the
number of telephone calls, the transportation of goods and mail,
and other types of movement between places.
The gravity model can also be used to compare the gravitational
attraction between two continents, two countries, two states,
two counties, or even two neighborhoods within the same city.
Some prefer to use the functional distance between cities
instead of the actual distance. The functional distance can be
the driving distance or can even be flight time between cities.
Check out
How Far Is it?
http://www.indo.com/distance/
Courtesy of Indo.com, this service uses data from the US
Census and a supplementary list of cities around the world
to find the latitude and longitude of two places, and then
calculates the distance between them (as the crow flies).
It also provides a map showing the two places, using the
Xerox PARC Map Server.
The gravity model was expanded by William J. Reilly in 1931
into Reilly's law of retail gravitation to calculate the breaking
point between two places where customers will be drawn to
one or another of two competing commercial centers.
Opponents of the gravity model explain that it can not be
confirmed scientifically, that it's only based on observation.
They also state that the gravity model is an unfair method of
predicting movement because its biased toward historic ties
and toward the largest population centers. Thus, it can be used
to perpetuate the status quo.
Castells – Space Of Flow
The Space of flow is a high level cultural conceptual abstraction of space,
time, and their dynamic interaction with society in the digital age.
Complicated and mostly academic in nature, it was created by Manuel
Castells in order to "reconceptualize new forms of spatial arrangements
under the new technological paradigm"
It is a new type of space, enabling synchronicity and real-time interaction
without physical proximity. It was first mentioned in The Informational
City: Information Technology, Economic Restructuring, and the Urban
Regional Process, published in 1989.
Generally space is considered passive form, while time is considered a
separate and active entity.
Castells makes the argument that space should not be disconnected
from time. He asserts that space is a dynamic entity related to time, and
rejects the concept that it will disappear as to create a global city.
Space is defined by this idea as "the material support of time-sharing
social practices".
He goes on to define the space of flows as "the material organization of
time-sharing social practices that work through flows" .
In 2001, he wrote: “the space of flows...links up distant locales around
shared functions and meanings on the basis of electronic circuits and
fast transportation corridors, while isolating and subduing the logic of
experience embodied in the space of places.”
As with most abstractions, the true meaning and usefulness of this
conceptualization can be elusive to casual readers. It might be helpful
to step through Castells’ definitions in order to come to a conclusion
on what he's getting at.
Castells is defining space as the physical support of the way we live in
time.
The space and time we are used to, "real world time,” is referred to by
him as a space of places. This is because it lacks three elements central
to a space of flows. It lacks:
a proper medium through which to flow,
the proper items to flow through it,
and, it lacks nodes through which these things flow and circulate.
Castells wants to conceptualize a world wherein human action and
interaction occurs by dynamic movement and distance can also be
completely dynamic rather than static .
This is his space of flows. It involves the medium of
telecommunications technology, time sensitive and continuous data
that runs (flows) across it, and nodes of circuitry and computer
systems all over the world.
This movement brings people together into a continuous and real
time arena that seems to be to be differentiated from the idea of a
global village by the fact that interacting groups are enhanced by
their position in time, rather than that position disappearing
altogether.
Castells & Hall -- Technopolis
In an increasingly borderless world, the concept of place -- the location
of business, company and university research activities, and of
manufacturing, distribution, and sales and trade activities - has
become less relevant.
Frank Giunta (1996) points out that the main reason is rapidly evolving
and increasingly cheaper ICT. It is becoming very difficult for
national governments to control the flows of money, technology, and
knowledge.
Castells and Hall expanded the “space of flows” into the concept of a
virtual or networked community – a technopolis. They posit that
these cities of the future will function much like today, but without
the confines of physical space.
Researchers collaborate over the Internet, regardless of
where they are. For firms, each activity may take place in a
different location: R&D, design, raw material sourcing,
manufacturing, assembly, distribution, marketing.
Could science parks and technology incubators could
become obsolete in the 21st century?
Giunta argues that the idea of a park or incubator as a "real
estate" enterprise should give way to that of a "knowledgebased" enterprise that transcends the local economic space.
In fact, although the geographical reach of most technologybased firms tends to expand rapidly, they remain dependent
on regional capabilities in order to maintain and increase their
competitiveness.
Territory-specific differences in the ability to create and use
knowledge are still key to the regional capabilities to support
competitive firms.
Such territory-specific differences relate chiefly to tacitness
and path dependency of knowledge production, which are in
turn related to a region's history and spatial proximity among
agents.
Kondratieff – Long Wave Theory
Professor Nickolai Kondratieff ( pronounced "Kon-DRA-tee-eff") helped
develop the first Soviet Five-Year Plan , for which he analyzed factors that
would stimulate Soviet economic growth. In 1926, Kondratieff published
his findings in a report entitled, "Long Waves in Economic Life".
Kondratieff's major premise was that capitalist economies displayed long
wave cycles of boom and bust ranging between 50-60 years in duration.
Kondratieff's study covered the period 1789 to 1926 and was centered on
prices and interest rates. Kondratieff's theories documented in the 1920's
were validated with the depression less than 10 years later.
A Kondratieff cycle consists of four distinct phases, or
distinguishable, dramatic mood changes, the tone of which
determines the actions of individuals involved in the
economy.
The awareness of these characteristics allows for the
anticipation of the change in the economy and the
psychological mood that will prevail.
SPRING - Inflationary Growth Phase
A common premise among business cycle economists supposes inflation as
an inevitable part of growth. Government becomes a passive participant in
the inflation cycle. Growth begins from a depressed economic base and
expands in an ever-increasing spiral. The interaction of the participants
within the economy causes wealth, as represented by savings, and the
production of capital equipment to be accumulated for the future. The
expansion of production and affluence causes prices to rise, and the increased
volume of goods requires a higher velocity of money, thus creating a higher
price structure.
Historically, the growth phase requires 25 years to complete. During this
time, unemployment falls, wages and productivity rise and prices remain
relatively stable. The mood of the growth phase is one of accumulation and
the desire for new product manufacture.
SUMMER - Stagflation (Recession)
Eventually, the continuation of exponential growth reaches its limits. Excess
capital produces a shortage of key resources and the economy enters a period
where growth creates a shortage of resources. As an economy gets closer to its
limits, inefficiencies build up.
The imbalances of this period have been historically exaggerated by what can
be labeled a "peak war“ such as War of 1812, the Civil War, World War I and
Vietnam,. These wars produce a dramatic drop in output, an unusually. severe
recession and a rapid rise in unemployment.
Although this recession is short lived [three to five years], it is key in altering
perceptions and the structure of the economy. No longer does excess create an
abundance.
The "Limits to Growth" now define a maximum level of economic activity that
traps the economy into consolidation and tight bounds for the next 20-25
years.
AUTUMN - Deflationary Growth (Plateau Period)
The primary recession occurs out of an imbalance forced upon the economy by
real limitations. The rapid rise in prices and changes in production correct this
imbalance. The change in price structure, along with the mood of a population
used to consumption paired with the vast accumulation of wealth from the past
30 years, causes the economy to enter a period of relatively flat growth and mild
prosperity. Due to structural changes and the limits of the existing paradigm the
economy becomes consumption oriented.
Excesses of an unpopular war, along with fiscal liberalism, cause popular
reaction toward stability or normalcy. A mood of isolationism permeates. The
plateau period generally lasts 7 to 10 years and is characterized by selective
industry growth, development of new ideas ( both technological and social ) and
a strong feelings of affluence, terminating in a feeling of euphoria. The inflated
price structure from the primary recession, along with the desire for
consumption, produces a rapid increase in debt. Eventually, wealth consumption
expands beyond all practical limits, and economy slips into a severe and
protracted depression.
WINTER – Depression
Excesses of the plateau period cause a collapse of the price structure. This
exhaustion of accumulated wealth forces the economy into a period of sharp
retrenchment. Generally, the secondary depression entails a three year
collapse, followed by a 15 year deflationary work out period. The deflation
can best be seen in interest rates and wages that have shown a historic
alignment with the timing of the Long Wave - peaking with and bottoming at
the extremes.
Kondratieff viewed depressions as cleansing periods that allowed the economy
to readjust from the previous excesses and begin a base for future growth. The
characteristic of fulfilling the expectations of the previous period of growth is
realized within the Secondary Depression or Down Grade. This is a period of
incremental innovation where technologies of the past period of growth are
refined, made cheaper and more widely distributed. Incremental innovation
consolidates industries.
The Down Grade sees one final period of recession before transitioning to a
new period of growth. The final recession is mild with very low inflation and
appears far more severe than it will be remembered for later in the Growth
Cycle.
Within the Down Grade is a consolidation of social values or goals. Ideas and
concepts introduced in the preceding period of growth while radical sounding
at the time become integrated into the fabric of society. Often these social
changes are supported by shifts in technology. The period of incremental
innovation provides the framework for social integration. It is important to
realize the Long Wave as global.
While global issues are of prime importance today with increased air travel
and communication, the Long Wave defines a time table for geo political
events. The Growth Period is one of political stability. Staring a the peak old
alliances become challenged. Through the process of the Down Grade old
alliances fail and new alliances are formed. The final stages of the Down
Grade is a period of coalescing or "quickening" of the alliances that will
govern the next period of growth.
Current Economic Cycles
With four distinct phases in the K-wave a number of analysts have compared
them to the seasons. Spring (inflationary growth, expansion), summer
(stagflation, recession), autumn (deflationary growth, plateau) and winter
(depression).
The following chart below summarizes the generally accepted phases since
1784 in the United States. Note the significant wars that accompanied the
recession (price peak) and depression (trough) phase. We have also noted the
tag name for the Autumn periods that were characterized by massive debt
growth and speculative bubbles.
The Kondratieff wave is a study of long cycles of debt buildup and
repudiation. It is not exclusively about price inflation and deflation periods.
Deflation is caused in part by the debt collapse. The Long Wave is also
generational as the next cycle of debt buildup and collapse is renewed every 23 generations as the previous generation dies off.
The old adage that "this time it is different" means the circumstances are
different, yes, but they fail to recognize that the previous period was the same
in terms of excesses. Therefore the end result is the same.
Reformatted from
http://www.kwaves.com/kond_overview.htm
Reformatted from http://www.kwaves.com/kond_overview.htm
Losch – Agglomeration/Spatial Influence
In 1954, German economist August Losch modified Christaller's
central place theory because he believed it was too rigid.
He thought that Christaller's model led to patterns where the
distribution of goods and the accumulation of profits were based
entirely on location.
Losch focused on maximizing consumer welfare and creating an
ideal consumer landscape where the need to travel for any good
was minimized and profits were held level, not maximized to
accrue extra.
The result of his work was to create a model of settlement patterns known as
the “Löschian landscape”. In this landscape, small, low-order places are to be
found close to very large settlements—metropolitan centers—whereas highorder settlements are to be found a substantial distance away.
In addition, it is characterized by sectors radiating from the central, dominant
settlement. Some of the sectors contain more settlements than others. Lösch
described these sectors as being city-rich; those with few settlements are citypoor. Often, small hamlets in rural areas do act as the central place for various
small settlements because they are where people travel to buy their everyday
goods.
However, people have to travel into the larger town or city to buy higher value
goods . This model is shown all over the world, from rural areas of England to
the United States' Midwest or Alaska with the many small communities that
are served by larger towns, cities, and regional capitals.
For model, see “Loschian Landscape” article on CD.
Rostow – Economic Development
In 1960, the American Economic Historian, WW Rostow suggested that countries
passed through five stages of economic development.
Stage 1 Traditional Society
The economy is dominated by subsistence activity where output is consumed by
producers rather than traded. Any trade is carried out by barter where goods are
exchanged directly for other goods. Agriculture is the most important industry
and production is labor intensive using only limited quantities of capital.
Resource allocation is determined very much by traditional methods of
production.
Stage 2 Transitional Stage (the preconditions for takeoff)
Increased specialization generates surpluses for trading. There is an emergence
of a transport infrastructure to support trade. As incomes, savings and
investment grow entrepreneurs emerge. External trade also occurs concentrating
on primary products.
http://welkerswikinomics.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/02/growthmodels_3.jpeg
Stage 3 Take Off
Industrialization increases, with workers switching from the agricultural sector
to the manufacturing sector. Growth is concentrated in a few regions of the
country and in one or two manufacturing industries. The level of investment
reaches over 10% of GNP.
The economic transitions are accompanied by the evolution of new political
and social institutions that support the industrialization. The growth is selfsustaining as investment leads to increasing incomes in turn generating more
savings to finance further investment.
Stage 4 Drive to Maturity
The economy is diversifying into new areas. Technological innovation is
providing a diverse range of investment opportunities. The economy is
producing a wide range of goods and services and there is less reliance on
imports.
Stage 5 High Mass Consumption
The economy is geared towards mass consumption. The consumer durable
industries flourish. The service sector becomes increasingly dominant.
According to Rostow development requires substantial investment in capital.
For the economies of LDCs to grow the right conditions for such investment
would have to be created.
If aid is given or foreign direct investment occurs at stage 3 the economy needs
to have reached stage 2. If the stage 2 has been reached then injections of
investment may lead to rapid growth.
Limitations
Many development economists argue that Rostov's model was developed with
Western cultures in mind and not applicable to LDCs.
It addition its generalized nature makes it somewhat limited. It does not set
down the detailed nature of the pre-conditions for growth. In reality policy
makers are unable to clearly identify stages as they merge together.
Thus as a predictive model it is not very helpful. Perhaps its main use is to
highlight the need for investment. Like many of the other models of economic
developments it is essentially a growth model and does not address the issue of
development in the wider context.
Wallerstein - Core Periphery Model
The first question for any focal locale is about the nature and spatial
characteristics of its links with other locales. This is prior to any
consideration of core/periphery position because one region must be
linked to another by systemic interaction in order for consideration of
core/periphery relations to be relevant.
Core-Periphery Stages of Development in a Urban System
The conventional core-periphery model of development tries to represent the
emergence of an urban system in four major stages which goes on par with the
development of transportation. From an initial situation of inequalities,
disparities are reduced and a functionally integrated urban system emerges.
Stage 1 (Pre-industrial). The pre-industrial (agricultural) society, with
localized economies and a small scale settlement structure. Each element is
fairly isolated, dispersed and characterized by low mobility.
http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch7en/conc7en/img/coreperiphery.gif
Stage 2 (Transitional). The concentration of the economy in the core begins
as a result of capital accumulation and industrial growth. The specific reasons
behind this concentration are not too clear, location (better access) being a
significant factor, but the fact remains that a dominant center emerges within
an urban system to become its growth pole.
Trade and mobility increase, but within a pattern dominated by the core even
if overall mobility remains low. Among the numerous examples of such a
phase is the early industrialization of Great Britain in the late 18th century or
the beginning of the colonial incorporation of regions in Latin America,
Africa or Asia.
.
Stage 3 (Industrial). Through a process or economic growth and diffusion
other growth centers appear. The main reasons for deconcentration are
increasing production costs (mainly labor and land) in the core area. This
diffusion is linked with increased interactions between elements of the urban
system and the construction of transport infrastructures.
Stage 4 (Post-industrial). The urban system becomes fully integrated and
inequalities are reduced significantly. The distribution of economic activities
creates a specialization and a division of labor linked with intense flows along
high capacity transport corridors.
Weber – Location Of Industry
Location of industry is concerned with the least cost location, so that again
transport costs are a crucial element in the location decision. Alfred
Weber devised the theory of industrial location, in 1909.
At the beginning of the industrial revolution transportation was slow.
Canals helped some, but did these form a convenient network. It was the
railways that enabled industrial location to free itself from raw material
sites. Water transport and especially the sea remained dominant for long
distance transport of industrial goods.
Weber’s analysis came at the point where railway networks had developed
to their ultimate extent. He was therefore concerned with the balance of
location between raw material site, the market for manufactured goods,
and transport.
Weber ‘s Assumptions
1.
There is an uneven distribution of natural resources on
the
plain. Raw materials are concentrated in specific sites.
2.
The size and location of markets are given at fixed points
on
the plain.
3. There are fixed locations of labor where wage rates are fixed
and labor is immobile and unlimited (capitalists love
that).
4.
The area has a uniform culture, climate and political
system.
5.
Entrepreneurs minimize costs of production.
6.
Perfect competition exists.
7.
Costs of land, structures, equipment and capital do not
vary regionally.
8.
There is a uniform system of transport over a flat surface.
There are two basic locations for industry - in the raw material or
market location. If there is no weight loss or weight gain in production,
you site your factory at either location, because the transport costs are
the same each way.
As transport costs are not identical for raw material and manufactured
goods a relative weighting must be calculated. Weber did this with a
material index, whereby the relative weight gain or loss is calculated.
Material index = total weight of materials used to manufacture the product
Total weight of the finished product
Adapted and modified from www.csiss.org
Two great sources for more information on Weber’s theory.
This site has many diagrams and examples for site location.
http://teacherweb.ftl.pinecrest.edu/snyderd/APHG/Unit%207/weber.htm
This is a “lecture” that contains many definitions and
explanations of Weber’s theory.
http://www.csiss.org/classics/archive/lect15.htm
URBAN MODELS
BURGESS CONCENTRIC ZONE
The model was based on Burgess’s observations of Chicago during the
early years of the 20th century. Major routes of transportation emanated
from the city’s core, making the CBD the most accessible location in the
city.
Burgess identified five rings of land use that would form around the
CBD. An important feature of this model is the positive correlation of
socio-economic status of households with distance from the CBD -more affluent households were observed to live at greater distances
from the central city.
Burgess described the changing spatial patterns of residential areas as
a process of "invasion" and "succession".
Concentric zone model
Commuter zone
Residential zone
Working class zone
Zone of transition
Factory zone
Central Business
District
As the city grew and developed over time, the CBD would exert
pressure on the zone immediately surrounding it (the zone of
transition).
Outward expansion of the CBD would invade nearby residential
neighborhoods causing them to expand outward.
The process was thought to continue with each successive
neighborhood moving further from the CBD.
Burgess suggested that inner-city housing was largely occupied by
immigrants and households with low socio-economic status.
As the city grew and the CBD expanded outward, lower status
residents moved to adjacent neighborhoods, and more affluent
residents moved further from the CBD.
Burgess's work is based on the bid rent curve. This states that the
concentric circles are based on the amount that people will pay for the
land. This value is based on the profits that are obtainable from
maintaining a business on that land.
The center of the town, will have the highest number of customers
so it is profitable for retail activities.
Manufacturing will pay slightly less for the land as they are only
interested in the accessibility for workers, 'goods in' and 'goods out'.
Residential land use will take the surrounding land.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/Bid_rent1.svg/799px-Bid_rent1.svg.png
The model has been challenged by many contemporary urban
geographers. Firstly, the model does not work well with cities
outside the United States, in particular with those developed
under different historical contexts. Even in the United States,
because of changes such as advancement in transportation and
information technology and transformation in global economy,
cities are no longer organized with clear "zones.”
• It assumes an isotropic plain - an even, unchanging landscape.
• Physical features - land may restrict growth of certain sectors.
• Commuter villages - commuter villages defy the theory since
they are
located far away from the city.
• Decentralization of shops, manufacturing industry, and
entertainment.
• Urban regeneration and gentrification - more expensive
property can be
found in 'low class' housing areas.
• Many new housing developments were built on the edges of
HOYT SECTOR MODEL
The sector model also known as the Hoyt model was proposed in
1939 by economist Homer Hoyt.
It is a model of urban land use and modified the concentric zone
model of city development.
The benefits of the application of this model include the fact it
allows for an outward progression of growth.
However, like all models of urban form its validity is limited.
While recognizing the value of the concentric ring model, Hoyt also
observed some consistent patterns in many American cities.
He observed, for example, that it was common for low-income
households to be found in close proximity to railroad lines, and
commercial establishments to be found along business thoroughfares.
He modified the concentric zone model to account for transportation
routes. Hoyt recognized that most major cities evolved around the
nexus of several important transport facilities such as railroads, sea
ports, and trolley lines that radiated from the city's center.
Recognizing that these routes (and later metropolitan expressways and
interstate highways) represented lines of greater access, Hoyt theorized
that cities would tend to grow in wedge-shaped patterns, or sectors,
outward from the CBD and centered on major transportation routes.
Higher levels of access translate to higher land values.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Ho
yt_model.svg/400px-Hoyt_model.svg.png
Thus, many commercial functions would remain in the CBD, but
manufacturing activity would develop in a wedge surrounding
transport routes.
Residential land use patterns also would grow in wedge-shaped
patterns with a sector of lower-income households bordering the
manufacturing/ warehousing sector (traffic, noise and pollution
making these less desirable locations to live).
Sectors of middle- and higher-income households located away from
industrial sites.
In many respects, Hoyt's sector model is simply a concentric zone
model modified to account for the impact of transportation systems
on accessibility.
HARRIS-ULLMAN MULTIPLE NUCLEI

The multiple nuclei model is an ecological model put forth by Harris and
Ullman in the 1945 article "The Nature of Cities."

The model describes the layout of a city. It notes that while a city may
have started with a central business district, similar industries with
common land-use and financial requirements are established near
each other.

These groupings influence their immediate neighborhood. Hotels and
restaurants spring up around airports, for example. The number and
kinds of nuclei mark a city's growth.

The theory was formed based on the idea that people have greater
movement due to increased car ownership. This increase of movement
allows for the specialization of regional centers (eg. heavy industry,
business park).

There is no clear CBD in this type of model
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Ulma
n2.png
http://www.uncc.edu/hscampbe/landuse/b-
WALTER CHRISTALLER
CENTRAL PLACE THEORY
Proposed in 1933while studying cities in southern Germany,
Christaller proposed the Central Place Theory (CPT) as a means of
understanding how urban settlements evolve and are spaced in in
relation to each other.
Similar to Weber and von Thunen, CPT locations are assumed to be in
a flat plane with similar purchasing power in all directions. There is a
universal transportation network and all parts of the plain are served
by the Central Place (CP).* CPT also assumes that all goods and
services are purchased from the nearest CP, that the demands on all
CP are similar, and that no CP made excessive profit.
[Central Place – a settlement or nodal point that is a supply point]
http://csiss.org/classics/uploads/pa-losch.gif
Christaller's CPT was evolved from the concept of centralization as an
ordering principle. Christaller proposed that if the centralization of
mass around a nucleus is an elementary form of order, then the same
centralistic principle can be equated in urban settlements.
The Christaller model proposed a hierarchical arrangement of
settlements and conceptualized the model with hexagonal
arrangements. The hexagon best equated a circle for maximum
coverage and some of the problems of overlap within circular
arrangements were removed from hexagonal arrangements.
The population size and importance of a settlement were not
necessarily synonymous, but the centrality of the place was
conceptualized in terms of its importance in the region around it.
Christaller’s theory consisted of the basic concepts of centrality,
threshold, and range.
Centrality is the draw to a particular place.
The threshold is the minimum market that is needed to bring a new
firm or service provider or city into existence and keep it running.
Range is the average minimum distance that people will travel to buy
these services or goods.
The variations in Christaller’s central place theory were based on
transportation (mid-point) and administration (strong centralization and
central market).
The marketing principle is better known as the k=3 system, where a
hexagonal space is envisaged with the central places serving two
lower-order places each or one-third of the lower-order neighbors
surrounding them.
The market area of a higher-order
place includes a third of the
market area of each of the
following size neighboring lowerorder places. Each is located at
the corner of a hexagon around
the high-order settlement. Each
high-order settlement gets 1/3 of
each satellite settlement, thus K =
1 + 6×1/3 = 3.
The marketing model follows the rule of 3s (1,3,9,27,81,..). Therefore,
a consumer equidistant from three higher order places - A1, A2 and A3
- would purchase 1/3 from A1, 1/3 from A2 and 1/3 from A3.
In the transportation model, the goal was to minimize the network
length and maximize the connectivity of centers being served.
According to K = 4 transport
principle, the market area of a higherorder place includes a half of the
market area of each of the six
neighboring lower-order places, as
they are located on the edges of
hexagons around the high-order
settlements. This generates a
hierarchy of central places which
results in the most efficient transport
network. There are maximum central
places possible located on the main
transport routes connecting the higher
order center.
In the administrative model, the goal was to provide a hierarchy of
controls where the lower level centers are completely controlled or
administered by the higher order places. The administrative principle
(or political-social principle), or K = 7, had six lower-order places
served by the CP.
Settlements are nested according to
sevens. The market areas of the
smaller settlements are completely
enclosed within the market area of
the larger settlement. Since
tributary areas cannot be spilt
administratively, they must be
allocated exclusively to a single
higher-order place. Efficient
administration is the control
principle in this hierarchy.
Christaller envisaged these models as hierarchical, with all higher order
places in the hexagon surrounded by other higher-order places to
explain not only local but regional economics and the specialization of
urban centers.
Central Place Theory
BORCHERT'S EPOCHS
STAGES OF EVOLUTION OF AMERICAN METROPOLIS
John Borchert’s fascination with geography can be traced to his
connection to Chicago. This connection lead to a lifetime of study
of America’s heartland and the unique geographical elements
found there. John’s lifetime of study was published as America’s
Northern Heartland.
As a tribute to Dr. Borchert, his family has created a website . Along
with most of his published works there is a collection of his
unpublished works and the entire text of America’s Northern
Heartland.
http://www.borchert.com/john/index.htm
Borchert’s Epochs refer to four distinct periods in the history of
American urbanization. Each epoch is characterized by the impact of a
particular transport technology on the creation and differential rates of
growth of American cities.
A. Cities have different atmospheres
1. Once established, a city tends to survive even change and
modernize
2. Four-stages in the evolution of the American metropolis
a) Sail-wagon epoch (1790-1830)
b) Iron-horse epoch (1830-1870)
c) Steel-rail epoch (1870-1920)
d) Auto-air-amenity epoch (1920-1970)
Borchert did not provide an ending date for his fourth epoch. It has
been suggested that today Borchert would probably add a fifth stage
e) High-Technology Epoch (1970 to present)
THE EVERYTHING MODEL
World3 Model


The World3 model was a computer simulation of interactions between
population, industrial growth, food production and limits in the
ecosystems of the Earth. It was originally produced and used by a Club
of Rome study that produced the model and the book Limits to Growth.
The principal creators of the model were Donella Meadows, Dennis
Meadows, and Jørgen Randers.
The model was documented in the book Dynamics of Growth in a Finite
World. It added new features to Jay W. Forrester’s World2 model. Since
World3 was originally created it has had minor tweaks to get to the
World3/91 model used in the book Beyond the Limits and later was
tweaked to get the World3/2000 model distributed by the Institute for
Policy and Social Science Research.
While a running version of World3 is no longer available, a
model summary and several graphs are available. The Whole
Systems Foundation [www.whole-systems.org] maintains a site
dedicated to many of the world’s hot issues.
http://www.whole-systems.org/world3.html
RESOURCES
Center for Spatially Integrated Social Sciences
www.csiss.org
Geography all the Way – a UK online resource for teachers
http://www.geographyalltheway.com/
A Geopolitical Guide to . . . Middle East and Japan
http://www.list.org/~mdoyle/index.html
Tropical Horticulture - A series of lectures on Agriculture
This is a feature of the Center for New Crops and Plant Products website.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_14/lec_14.html