Topic 5: Innovation and
design 13 hours
Topic 5: Innovation and
design
5.1 Invention
5.2 Innovation
5.3 Strategies for Innovation
5.4 Stakeholders of Invention and Innovation
5.5 Product Life Cycle
5.6 Rogers characteristics of innovation and consumers
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing specifications
http://www.ibdesigntech.com/
5.1 Invention
Essential idea: The protection of a novel
idea of how to solve a problem is a major
factor in commercial design.
Nature Of Design:
Invention by lone inventors or in collaborative,
creative teams is at the forefront of design. Designers
must not only be creative and innovative, but also
understand the concepts that will make a new
product viable. A designer must use imagination
and be firmly grounded in factual and procedural
knowledge while remembering the needs and
limitations of the end user.
5.1 Invention
Concepts and principles:
• Drivers for invention
• The lone inventor
• Intellectual property (IP)
• Strategies for protecting IP: patents, trademarks,
design protection, copyright.
• First to market
• Shelved technologies
5.1 Invention
Invention: The process of discovering a principle . A technical advance in a
particular field often resulting in a novel product.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NolPbm__UN8
• Drivers for invention
1. Personal motivation to express creativity for personal Interest
2. scientific or technical curiosity
3. constructive discontent
4. desire to make money
5. desire to help others
.
5.1 Invention
• Drivers for invention
Traits that all great inventors have
Personal motivation to express creativity for personal
Interest
Project your mind into imagination space, focusing on
all the interrelated aspects of what you are creating or
inventing. To create your Eureka Moment, you must
forcefully move your mind beyond existing thinking
about the subject. You must move out of your conscious
world and focus your mind in a new place occupied only
by the new creation. This is your glorious imagination
space.
5.1 Invention
.
• Drivers for invention
Some people, very few, keep this imaginative ability
through adulthood. Their imaginings lead to inventions,
art, designs and explorations of many frontiers never
seen before. To start, try to be a child with the almost
naive capability of unfettered imagination. Emotion is
part of this creative formula, and that has not been
replaced in any advanced computer.
5.1 Invention
• Drivers for invention
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3NXD_ahwS7I
scientific or technical curiosity
Unleash your curiosity, quest for knowledge and
propensity for noticing things. No lesser minds than
Leonardo da Vinci and Albert Einstein were noted for
being passionately curious, using their imagination as
their prime lens to see ahead and their creativity to
solve problems. Einstein wrote: "The important thing is
not to stop questioning." You should also notice things,
however unrelated to your quest they may seem. When
Will Carrier noticed the apparently odd behavior of
water droplets in fog, he had stumbled into the basics
of the novel technology of the Carrier Corporation,
world leader in air conditioning.
5.1 Invention
• Drivers for invention
constructive discontent
Constructive discontent :Analyzing a situation which
would benefit from re –design , and working out a
strategy for improving it .
Creative designers are frequently dissatisfied with
what exists and want to make the situation better.
5.1 Invention
• Drivers for invention
desire to make money
In order to make money from your invention, you can do it
yourself or find the right partners to offer the necessary
resources in order to manufacture or market your
invention. There are several ways to make money from
inventions. You will need to choose between the
alternatives and identify the most profitable and feasible
way based on your resources and needs.
The ways you might make money from your invention fall
under three basic paths. You can sell the patent or rights to
your invention outright. You can license your invention. You
can produce and market and sell your invention yourself.
5.1 Invention
• Drivers for invention
desire to help others
Focus on the practical, useful, needed and beautiful.
Very often inventions and other creations start out
answering to a major need or a broad interest. Then the
project morphs into a personal passion with little or no
market value. Whether you're a garage tinkerer or a
Thomas Edison, ultimately your commercial success
depends on developing something which economically
fills a real need and which looks attractive to potential
buyers. As you develop prototypes, theories or
compositions, show them to people in the market for
overall attractiveness feedback.
5.1 Invention
• The lone inventor
What is a loner inventor?
Lone inventor: An individual working outside or inside an
organization who is committed to the invention of a novel and
often becomes isolated because he or she is engrossed with ideas
that imply change and are resisted by others
Why it is becoming increasingly difficult to be a successful lone
inventor.
Most products are now becoming extremely complex and rely on
expertise from various disciplines .Most designs are developed by
multidisciplinary teams of inventors/designers. The amount of
investment required is often large and beyond the resources of
one individual.
5.1 Invention
• The lone inventors
1. Individuals with a goal of the complete invention of a
new and somewhat revolutionary product.
2. Have ideas that are completely new and different.
3. May not comprehend or give sufficient care to the
marketing and sales of there product.
4. Are usually isolated, and have no backing towards
their design.
5. Are having a harder time to push forward their
designs, especially in a market where large
investments are required for success.
6. Their ideas, because of how different they are often
resisted by other employees and workers.
5.1 Invention
• The lone inventor
• Lone inventors work alone and are use to setting their own goals.
• Don't work in teams usually so team goals may prove difficult to adhere
to.
• Most likely be dogmatic which is less conducive to team work
• Are not flexible
Most products are now extremely complex and rely on expertise from
various disciplines. Most designs are developed by multidisciplinary teams.
Modern Products such as smart-phones, printer/scanners are very complex.
Requires knowledge from many disciplines.
It would be unlikely that a lone inventor would have the expertise in all the
disciplines.
Most modern day designs are developed in multidisciplinary teams
5.1 Invention
• The lone inventor
• The lone inventor may lack the business acumen to
push the invention through to innovation. The product
champion is often a forceful personality with much
influence in a company. He or she is more astute at
being able to push the idea forward through the
various business channels and is often able to consider
the merits of the invention more objectively.
5.1 Invention
Class work
The lone inventor
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of being a
lone inventor. Work in pairs. Start with an
introduction, conduct relevant research, and conclude
your findings in a table of advantages and
disadvantages,
5.1 Invention
The lone inventor
Advantages
Disadvantages
get through your idea alone therefore no need to report
back to someone of higher authority
May be too expensive to purchase or manufacture
Doesn’t have to be restricted with deadlines and set
requirements
Modern product are very complex therefore need a
multidisciplinary team
If any profit was made, it would undividedly go to the lone
inventor
Not enough knowledge to market and commercialize the
product
Lack of financial support to support the product
Resistance from others
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
Although many of the legal principles governing
intellectual property rights have evolved over centuries,
it was not until the 19th century that the term
intellectual property began to be used, and not until the
late 20th century that it became commonplace in the
majority of the world.
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
Benefits of IP include:
• differentiating a business from competitors
• selling or licensing to provide revenue streams
• offering customers something new and different
• marketing/branding its value as an asset
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
http://www.symbols.com/category.php?id=19
Intellectual property (IP) is a legal concept which refers to
creations of the mind for which exclusive rights are
recognized. Under intellectual property law, owners are
granted certain exclusive rights to a variety of intangible
assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works;
discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols,
and designs.
Common types of intellectual property rights include
copyright, trademarks, patents, industrial design rights,
trade dress, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
IP symbols and their application to products and
services: patent pending
™®©SM
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
The registered trademark symbol, designated by ® (the circled
capital letter "R"), is a symbol used to provide notice that the
preceding mark is a trademark or service mark that has been
registered with a national trademark office.
In some countries it is against the law to use the registered
trademark symbol for a mark that is not officially registered in
any country.
Trademarks not officially registered are instead marked with
the trademark symbol ™, while unregistered service marks are
marked with the service mark symbol ℠. The proper manner
to display these symbols is immediately following the mark,
and is commonly in superscript style but is not legally
required.
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
℠
The service mark symbol, designated by
(the letters SM
written in superscript style), is a symbol commonly used in the
United States to provide notice that the preceding mark is a
service mark.
This symbol has some legal force, and is typically used for service
marks not yet registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office; registered service marks are instead marked with the same
symbol used for registered trademarks, the registered trademark
symbol ®. The proper manner to display the symbol is immediately
following the mark in superscript style.
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
The copyright symbol or copyright sign
designated by © (a circled capital letter "C") is the
symbol used in copyright notices for works other than
sound recordings #which are indicated with the ℗
symbol# The use of the symbol is described in United
States copyright law and internationally by the
Universal Copyright Convention The C stands for
copyright
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
Copyright is a right given to authors of “original
works,” such as books, articles, movies, and computer programs.
Copyright gives the exclusive right to reproduce the work, prepare
derivative works, or to perform or present the work publicly. Copyrights
protect only the form or expression of ideas, not the underlying ideas
themselves. While a copyright may be registered to obtain legal
advantages, a copyright need not be registered to exist. Rather, a copyright
comes into existence automatically the moment the work is “fixed” in a
“tangible medium of expression,” and lasts for the life of the author plus
seventy years, or for a total of ninety-five years in cases in which
the employer owns the copyright.
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
The Trademark Symbol, is a symbol used to indicate an
assertion that the preceding mark is a trademark.
Use of the symbol indicates an assertion that a word,
image, or other sign is a trademark; it does not indicate
registration. Registered trademarks are indicated using
the registered trademark symbol (®), and in some
jurisdictions it is unlawful or illegal to use the ® symbol
with a mark which has not been registered.
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
A trademark is a word, phrase, symbol, or design used
to identify the source of goods or services sold, and to
distinguish
them from the goods or services of others. For
example, the Coca-Cola® mark and the design that appears
on their soft drink cans identifies them as products of that
company, distinguishing them from competitors such as
Pepsi®. Trademark law primarily prevents competitors
5.1 Invention
• IP (Intellectual Property)
from “infringing” upon the trademark, i.e., using
“confusingly
similar” marks to identify their own goods and services.
Unlike copyrights and patents, trademark rights can
last indefinitely if the owner continues to use the mark.
The term of a federal trademark registration lasts ten years,
with ten-year renewal terms being available.
5.1 Invention
The effectiveness of strategies for protecting IP
Plenty of places will explain how to file for a patent or a trademark
registration, and it's true that a federal registration can help enforce
your company’s rights. But there are other things you can do to protect
your intellectual property. Here are a few.
1. Employ Internal Controls
Controlling who has access to your intellectual property and other
sensitive information is key. And for confidential information that's
harder to register such as business plans, trade secrets, and customer
lists, controlling who has access to them can keep things on lockdown.
Employees or contractors working with your intellectual property should
have an "assignment of inventions" clause or a "work for hire"
agreement, in addition to some confidentiality clause.
5.1 Invention
The effectiveness of strategies for protecting IP
• 2. Sharing Doesn't Always Mean Caring
• There will come a time when you have to share information
with someone who is not a consultant or employee. That's
where a nondisclosure agreement (NDA) comes in.
• You might implement "confidential policies" such as putting
all verbal communications in writing or making written
information “confidential.” But above all, be sure to limit the
other party's access, especially people on a “need to know”
basis, such as accountants, lawyers, or a board of directors.
5.1 Invention
The effectiveness of strategies for protecting IP
• 2. Sharing Doesn't Always Mean Caring
• Sometimes an NDA won't happen. Venture capitalists almost
never sign them, as they manage hundreds of thousands of
intellectual property. In the end, you'll just have to balance
the advantages of collaboration—investment, sharing R&D
resources, outsourcing, or a potential deal—against the risks
of having the other side disclose your information.
5.1 Invention
The effectiveness of strategies for protecting IP
3. Have a Solid Defense
• If you have a brand name and learn another company is
using it, don't let it drag on for too long.
• Many companies trot out the old cease and desist letter,
which is easy enough to find online. “take all appropriate
legal action.”
5.1 Invention
Discussion
http://inventors.about.com/cs/basicshowtoinvent/a/aa041599.htm
Reasons why some innovators decide not to
protect their IP and alternative strategies to
ensure success?
There are arguments from both sides on this point. However, some
experts suggest not spending the time or money on a patent, instead
they suggest taking your invention straight to the marketplace. Only a
tiny percentage of patents make money. If your invention is a very
simple item you might want to consider that approach. Did you know
that one very successful invention that was never patented was
Rubik's Cube?
5.1 Invention
Discussion
Reasons why some innovators decide not to
protect their IP and alternative strategies to
ensure success?
The traditional approach teaches an inventor to:
• protect his/her invention
• do a patent search
• file a patent application
• make prototypes and
• see if they can make some sales
It will cost you a lot of money and a lot of time and will almost
assuredly result in worthless, ineffective patents. Why?
5.1 Invention
Discussion
Reasons why some innovators decide not to
protect their IP and alternative strategies to
ensure success?
In contrast to the traditional approach, the expert
inventor knows that patents cost money, they don't
earn money. They also know that they are not going to
waste their valuable money, time and efforts on a
whim. But the best news of all is that expert inventors
know how to do this with very little out of pocket
expense!
5.1 Invention
Discussion
Reasons why some innovators decide not to
protect their IP and alternative strategies to
ensure success?
Alternative strategies to IP
1-There are laws that state that the inventor who is first to
conceive of an idea, then reduce it to practice (that is, prove
that it works the way you say it does) will be acknowledged
as the legal inventor. The other issue that an inventor should
keep in mind is that if work on the invention has been
abandoned, then he/she will lose those rights. In other
words, you have to proceed with due diligence in your
development and cannot let large amounts of time elapse.
The best way to track your day-to-day activities is by using a
legal, bound journal.
5.1 Invention
Discussion
Reasons why some innovators decide not to
protect their IP and alternative strategies to
ensure success?
Alternative strategies to IP
2- smart inventors know that being successful means making
money, not getting patents. Thus, expert inventors make sure their
products are sellable before filing for patents. In a complete
reversal of the traditional method (the 97% failure rate), which
puts marketing last, smart inventors qualify the market potential
right up front! After protecting their invention, they will work
confidentially with marketing experts in the field of their invention
that can secure some substantial sales commitments. Then, they
will work with manufacturing experts to get their invention made
cost effectively.
Discussion
5.1 Invention
Reasons why some patented inventions are
Shelved
Classroom activity
• Work in pairs to discuss three reasons why some
patented inventions are shelved. Support your
argument with research and examples.
5.1 Invention
Reasons why some patented inventions are Shelved:
1.
Inappropriate properties
2.
Anesthetic appeal
3.
Bad connection with the brand (underwear (bic), colgate (food))
4.
Strong competition in the market (the zune while iPod was introduced)
5.
Price or value for money was not reasonable to the target group
6.
Ingredients that cause health issues (pepsi blue)
7.
Bad marketing strategies- branding strategy (dnl vs. 7up)
8.
Wrong target group (sophisticated McDonalds meal for adults)
9.
Consumers were not appealed by product (crystal pepsi claim that it was a healthy drink)
10.
Clients were not convinced with the purpose of the product
11.
Function was not suitable
12.
Timing – product did not compete with already available product
13.
Lack of marketing the product
5.2 Innovation
Essential idea: There are many different types of
innovation.
Nature of design:
Designers will be successful in the marketplace
when
they solve long-standing problems, improve on
existing solutions or find a “product gap”. The
constant
evaluation and redevelopment of products is key,
with unbiased analysis of consumers and
commercial
opportunities.
5.2 Innovation
Concepts and principles:
• Invention and innovation
• Categories of innovation: sustaining innovation,
disruptive innovation, process innovation
• Innovation strategies for design: architectural
innovation, modular innovation, configurational
innovation
• Innovation strategies for markets: diffusion and
suppression
5.2 Innovation
• Invention: The process of discovering a principle .A technical advance
in a particular field often resulting in a novel product.
• Innovation: The business of putting in invention in the marketplace
and making it a success.
5.2 Innovation
Initial Concept
Obsolescence
Re-innovation
Invention
Re-design
Innovation
Design for the
market
5.2 Innovation
Why few invention become innovations:
1-Marketability/Need
• There may not be a market for the idea.
• It can be very difficult to undertake appropriate market
research on a new product to establish whether there is a
market.
• The market may be too small.
• The product may go out of fashion.
5.2 Innovation
Why few invention become innovations:
2-Marketing
• The product may not be marketed properly.
• Too little money may be invested in marketing.
• The product may not be appropriately targeted to
a market segment.
5.2 Innovation
Why few invention become innovations:
3-Price
• The product may be priced too high.
• The product may not represent good value for
money for customers.
• The product cannot be produced for a viable selling
price.
5.2 Innovation
Why few invention become innovations:
4-Outlay
• Too expensive to get to production.
• Too long to achieve return on capital investment.
5.2 Innovation
Why few invention become innovations:
5-Risk
• Risk too great for potential rewards.
• Lack of finance for long-term projects.
5.2 Innovation
Categories of Innovation:
1. sustaining innovation
2. disruptive innovation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mbPiAzzGap0
3. process innovation
5.2 Innovation
Categories of Innovation
Sustaining Innovation: This is the type of innovation that Apple excels at,
where there is a clearly defined problem and a reasonably good understanding
of how to solve it.
When Steve Jobs first envisioned the iPod, it was simply a device that allowed
you to put “1000 songs in your pocket.” That meant you needed to have a
certain amount of memory fit into certain dimensions. Those were difficult
problems that took a few years to solve, but it was pretty clear what was
involved and who was capable of solving them.
• Sustaining innovation is probably the most common in the corporate
world and is often referred to as engineering rather than
science. Like basic research, much of this is done by internal R&D
labs, but many firms outsource it as well.
• For instance, when Steve Jobs wanted a mouse for the Macintosh
computer, he went to IDEO with clear technical specifications
knowing that they had the right skills to produce what he wanted.
5.2 Innovation
Categories of Innovation
Disruptive Innovation:. These tend to be new
approaches to old products and services.
Referred to disruptive innovation in the past as crappy
innovation because it tends to perform poorly on
previously defined parameters (like early digital
cameras that took lousy pictures), but outperform on a
different parameter, such as price or convenience or
compatibility.
5.2
Innovation
Categories of Innovation
Process innovation can be just as important as product
innovation. We are all aware of everyday product innovations
such as those in the latest flat screen televisions, computer
displays or cell phones.
Innovations of this nature often use such techniques as business
process reengineering or lean based tools to analyze a process
and reduce the number of steps by removing any redundant,
repetitive or simply wasteful process steps.
It is about applying knowledge and thinking to create services
with new processes.
5.2
Innovation
Categories of Innovation.
Process innovations can be classified as radical when they deliver
significant differences to existing processes.
Examples:
Traditionally glass making went through a number of steps…
• Furnace: melting of the raw material ingredients
• Casting: the glass in a mold
• Hardening: the glass in a special oven
• Grinding and polishing: the glass using various grades of
abrasives
5.2 Innovation
Categories of Innovation
5.2 Innovation
Classwork:
Research for examples of Categories of Innovation and justify
your answer:
1. sustaining innovation
Examples: daim, oreo, jansport, johnsons
2.
3.
disruptive innovation
Examples: fuelband, Samsung gear
process innovation
Examples: poduction of cars by using robot, dell, redfin,
printing on shoes
5.2 Innovation
Classwork:
Research for examples of Categories of Innovation
and justify your answer:
5.2 Innovation
Classwork:
Research for examples of Categories of Innovation
and justify your answer:
5.2 Innovation
Classwork:
Research for examples of Categories of Innovation
and justify your answer:
5.2 Innovation
Innovation Strategies:
1. Architectural innovation
2. Modular innovation
3. Define Configurational innovation
5.2 Innovation
Innovation Strategies:
Define Architectural innovation
[Architectural] innovations … change the way in which the
components of a product are
linked together, while leaving the core design concepts (and thus
the basic knowledge
underlying the components) untouched .
In other words, architectural innovation involves rearranging known
parts (components) into new
patterns (architectures) to achieve higher levels of system
performance on one or more dimensions.
5.2
Innovation
Innovation Strategies:
Architectural innovation
‘3.5’ disk drives were an architectural innovation over the ‘8’ or ‘14’
Winchester disk drives. The ‘3.5’ disks were smaller, lighter, and lower in
cost (in terms of total cost and not cost per Megabyte) than the Winchester
architecture.
2. Desktop photocopiers represent an architectural shift over the big standalone photocopiers.
3. Multi-core microprocessor architecture is an architectural shift over
single core CPU architectures.
5.2 Innovation
Innovation Strategies:
Modular innovations will require new knowledge for
one or more components, but the architectural
knowledge remains unchanged. Around the 1980s
most hard disk manufacturers substituted the ferrite
read/write heads with thin-metal heads; this is a clear
example of modular innovation. The opposite of
modular innovation is the architectural innovation.
5.2 Innovation
Innovation Strategies:
The hard disk industry went through several waves of
miniaturization, the first mainframe computers were packed
with 14-inch diameter disks, after some years the industry
came out with 8‘, 5,25‘, 3,5’ and 1,8‘ disk drives. Each and
every time the size of the hard disk diminished the
knowledge of the linkages between components was
evolving, while the single components were using pretty
much the same technology, as a result we classify such
changes as architectural innovations.
5.2 Innovation
Innovation Strategies:
Modular innovation vs architectural Innovation
• Modular Innovation is where you maintain the architecture
and modify the modules and vice versa. For instance
adding more interfaces to a PC. Architectural innovation is
where the architecture changes but the modules stay the
same. Take for instance the move from delivering
applications from client programs resident on a PC to one
delivered via a browser. One can view Modular Innovation
as incremental change and Architectural Innovation as
revolutionary
5.2 Innovation
Innovation Strategies:
Configurational innovation
Generally, a configuration is the arrangement - or the process
of making the arrangement - of the parts that make up a
whole.
Class work look for examples of Configurational
strategies
5.2 Innovation
Innovation Strategies:
Architectural innovation:
Cars, electric vehicles
Modular innovation
Smart phones
Configurationally strategies
Google chrome
5.2 Innovation
Innovation
Strategies:
5.2 Innovation
• Innovation strategies for markets: diffusion and
suppression
• Perhaps the best marketing oriented definition of the
diffusion process is the adoption of new products and
services over time by consumers within social systems as
encouraged and marketing activities. This definition
recognizes the various components of the process which are
important in the spread of an innovation.
5.2 Innovation
• Innovation strategies for markets: diffusion and
suppression
• Having managed to get an innovation manufactured and ready for the
market, there are a number of factors that influence how well it will sell
and how rapidly it is likely to diffuse:
• characteristics of the innovation itself
• nature of the market
• relevant government regulations.
• As an innovation becomes accepted by an increasing number of
individual and organisational users it goes through the process of
diffusion, which is the process of adoption of an innovation over time
from limited use to widespread use in the market.
5.2 Innovation
• Innovation strategies for markets: diffusion and
suppression
• There are also factors that can lead to suppression or delayed adoption
of an innovation in the early years of its availability when it may
compete with a dominate design.
• First of all there may be patent disputes over the ownership of the
invention. These can delay widespread sales until it becomes clear who
has the right to market the innovation. Then for the duration of the
patent other inventors are discouraged from devising improvements
when they can't benefit from them.
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-mathstechnology/engineering-and-technology/design-andinnovation/invention-and-innovation-introduction/content-section-5.13
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Essential idea: Designers have a range of strategies for innovation.
Nature of design:
Companies encourage advancements in technology
and services, usually by investing in research and
development (R&D) activities. Even though the R&D
may be carried out by a range of different experts
from varied fields of research, the development
process is often based on common principles and
strategies to identify the direction of development.
This methodology structures the R&D of new
technologies and services.
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Concepts and principles:
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Act of insight
• Adaptation
• Technology transfer
• Analogy
• Chance
• Technology push
• Market pull
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Act of insight
• Suddenly an insight suggests a solution, or the means of achieving a solution, to the
inventor. Legendary examples include Newton observing an apple falling from a tree
and having his insight into the laws of gravitation or Archimedes leaping from his
bath and running naked through the streets shouting ‘Eureka!’ (‘I've found it!’).
These vivid images point to the fact that creative ideas can occur when someone is
not consciously trying to solve a problem.
• These acts of insight are not only dependent upon the state of mind of the inventor,
however, but also on the circumstances in which they occur. The image of
Archimedes’ moment of insight is familiar. Archimedes realised, allegedly as he
lowered himself into his bath, that there was a relationship between his weight and
the volume of water displaced.
• http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/engineering-andtechnology/design-and-innovation/invention-and-innovation-introduction/contentsection-11.5
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Act of insight
• the act or result of apprehending the inner nature of things or of
seeing intuitively.
• the ability to perceive clearly or deeply; penetration
• a penetrating and often sudden understanding, as of a complex
situation or problem
• the immediate understanding of the significance of an event or
action
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Adaptation
Adaptation: An existing technology or solution to a problem in
one field used to provide a new idea for a solution in another.
If a problem is in a new context, a solution may be found by
finding something similar from another context and adapting
it This will save designers effort and time and could be an
important approach for finding solutions to a design problem.
(E.g. Flight simulators and children's games).
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Technology transfer
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ygX5zcU5vdg
• Technology transfer is the process by which technology or knowledge
developed in one place or for one purpose is applied and exploited in
another place for some other purpose.
• The term "technology transfer" historically has been associated with
federal activities; however, the process is not restricted to the government.
The most common form of technology transfer occurs between federal
laboratories and nonfederal organizations such as private industry,
academia, and state and local governments
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Technology transfer
• Technology transfer, also called transfer of technology (TOT), is the
process of transferring skills, knowledge, technologies, methods of
manufacturing, samples of manufacturing and facilities among
governments or universities and other institutions to ensure that
scientific and technological developments are accessible to a wider
range of users who can then further develop and exploit the technology
into new products, processes, applications, materials or services. It is
closely related to (and may arguably be considered a subset of)
knowledge transfer. Horizontal transfer is the movement of technologies
from one area to another. At present transfer of technology (TOT) is
primarily horizontal. Vertical transfer occurs when technologies are
moved from applied research centers to research and development
departments
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Analogy
Analogy: Drawing on a similar situation for solutions
Remote or strange analogies help to stimulate the mind in
new ways, (example, cat's eyes in the middle of the road, or
sonar based on communication between marine animals,
ultrasonic focusing system for cameras was based on how
bats navigate in the dark).
Think of similar objects which could be used to create new
designs for the ball point pen List how and why?
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts
where each strategy
has been used.
• Analogy
Analogy: Drawing on a
similar situation for
solutions
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Chance
Letting the mind wonder freely to get new ideas is classified as "by chance" method.
Another important source of inventions and scientific discoveries is chance, which is
strongly associated with acts of insight. As well as the sort of painstaking work that either
precedes an invention or goes into the steady improvement in performance, in the
development of most inventions there's a moment when chance plays a part. Often people
are looking for one thing but find another – perhaps working on one technology when they
stumble on the principles behind another. The skill of the inventor lies initially in
recognising the significance of a chance discovery and later of persuading others of its
significance.
http://mind-value.blogspot.com/2007/02/innovation-by-chance-or-directed.html
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Chance
Examples of innovation by chance
http://www.nbcnews.com/id/38870091/ns/technology_and_scienceinnovation/t/greatest-accidental-inventions-all-time/#.U9jvIstZrIV
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Technology push
Technology push: Where the impetus for a new design emanates from a
technological development.
• A Technology-push occurs, when internal development comes up with a patent or
a technological device that has a high novelty character for the enterprise in the
absence of any specific need that customers may have. Often, such a breakthrough innovation is even unknown to the entire industry.
• In technology push situations, innovations are created and then appropriate
applications or user populations are sought that fit the innovation.
• Did the market ask "please give me an iPod with download store" or a camera
phone, most likely not so this would be a technology push, when the market asks
for better safety features in a car then this would be market pull.
• Technology advances often occur some time before the market knows about them
so when the new products with the new tech hits the market the line between
market pull vs. technology push is blurred.
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Technology push
A portable sports audio MP3 player with a strap on so that an athlete
can listen to music while exercising is an example of technological push
where the product is designed in response to the market demand for
gadgets combining designer sportswear and digital technology. The
technological push for this product stems from the development of
MP3 technology and proliferation of internet sites featuring
downloadable music.
5.3 Strategies for innovation
Discuss design contexts where each strategy has been used.
• Market pull
Market pull: The initial impetus for the development of a new product is
generated by a demand from the market.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
• Essential idea: There are three key roles in invention and
innovation, which can be shared by one or more people.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
Nature of design:
Collaborative generation of knowledge and high
efficiency information flow allow for diversity, increased
resilience, reliability and stability within an organization.
Through participatory research, stakeholders can make
full use of the resulting innovation and invention, by
transferring findings relevant to the sector in which
they are positioned. A designer’s increased awareness
through shared industry knowledge enhances
profitability and policy.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
Concepts and principles:
• The inventor, the product champion, the
entrepreneur
• The inventor as a product champion and/or
entrepreneur
• A multidisciplinary approach to innovation
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
• The inventor, the product champion, the
Entrepreneur
Lone inventor: An individual working outside or inside an
organization who is committed to the invention of a novel and
often becomes isolated because he or she is engrossed with
ideas that imply change and are resisted by others.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
• The inventor, the product champion, the
Entrepreneur
• Product champion: An influenicial individual, usually working
within an organization, who develops an enthusiasm for a
particular idea or invention and ''champions'' it within that
organization.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
• The inventor, the product champion, the
Entrepreneur
• Akio Morita, as Sony founder and honorary chairman, was an
influential individual within the Sony organization; he had an
enthusiasm for the Sony Walkman™ design. Furthermore, he
pushed his idea against skeptical colleagues as he believed in
his own vision and therefore regarded as a product
champion.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
• Lone inventors
• Generally lack the business acumen
• Are not forceful enough
• Are not team players /work on their own
• Spend many years on development
• Product champion
• Good at taking ideas to the marketplace
• Considerable influence in a company
• Work in a group
• Are business minded
• Promote eagerly
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
• The inventor as a product champion and/or
Entrepreneur
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lZKhZmvJuZY
Entrepreneurs are leaders willing to take risk and exercise
initiative, taking advantage of market opportunities by
planning, organizing, and employing resources, often by
innovating new or improving existing products.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
• The inventor as a product champion and/or
Entrepreneur
Business entrepreneurs often have strong beliefs about a
market opportunity and are willing to accept a high level of
personal, professional, or financial risk to pursue that
opportunity. Business entrepreneurs are often highly regarded
in US culture as being a critical component of its capitalistic
society.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
• The inventor as a product champion and/or
Entrepreneur
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/engineering-and-technology/design-and-innovation/invention-and-innovation-introduction/content-section-5.5
Famous American entrepreneurs include: Henry Ford
(automobiles), J. Pierpont Morgan (banking), Thomas Edison
(electricity/light bulbs), George Eastman (cameras), Barron
Collier (advertising), Milton S. Hershey (confections), Bill Gates
(computer operating systems and applications), and Steve
Jobs (computer hardware, software).
Famous British entrepreneurs include: Richard Branson (travel
and media), James Dyson (home appliances), Alan Sugar
(computers). products.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
• The inventor as a product champion and/or
Entrepreneur
Discuss Reasons why inventors often take the role of product
champion and or entrepreneur.
An inventor makes new things and entrepreneur is someone
who starts a business
Most products are now becoming extremely complex and rely
on expertise from various disciplines . Most designs are
developed by multidisciplinary teams of inventors/designers.
The amount of investment required is often large and beyond
the resources of one individual.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
Discuss Reasons why inventors often take the role of product
champion and or entrepreneur.
• Mobile phones are complex products; they incorporate
knowledge from different discipline areas .They are also
expensive to produce as the requisite investment would be
too much for one individual to produce.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
Concepts and principles:
• A multidisciplinary approach to innovation.
The advantages and disadvantages of
multidisciplinary teams
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
Concepts and principles:
• A multidisciplinary approach to innovation. The advantages and disadvantages of multidisciplinary
teams
Advantages
Disadvantages
You get a better overall opinions on decisions.
The one different point of view might be
disregarded.
More than one person has the authority to make
decisions.
Information that is being passed around might be
misunderstood.
You tackle problems from different perspectives.
More parties are involved which increases the risk
of lack of confidentiality.
It’s a flexible team.
Its time consuming and there should be set
meeting times, communication issues (different
time zones).
The outcome is a secure outcome because it is
Its more expensive.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
Concepts and principles:
• multidisciplinary team
A group composed of members with varied but
complimentary experience, qualifications, and skills that
contribute to the achievement of the organization's specific
objectives.
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
Concepts and principles:
• multidisciplinary team
• A multidisciplinary approach involves drawing appropriately
from multiple disciplines to redefine problems outside of
normal boundaries and reach solutions based on a new
understanding of complex situations. [1]
• Multidisciplinary work is often seen as revolutionary by skillcentred specialists but it is simply a fundamental expression
of being guided by holism rather than reductionism, as
described by Jan Smuts in his 1926 book Holism and
Evolution. One of the major barriers to the multidisciplinary
5.4 Stakeholders in invention and innovation
• multidisciplinary team
• Multidisciplinary work is often seen as revolutionary by skill-centred
specialists but it is simply a fundamental expression of being guided
by holism rather than reductionism, as described by Jan Smuts in his
1926 book Holism and Evolution. One of the major barriers to the
multidisciplinary approach is the long-established tradition of highly
focused professionals cultivating a protective (and thus restrictive)
boundary around their area of expertise. This tradition has
sometimes been found not to work to the benefit of the wider public
interest, and the multidisciplinary approach has recently become of
interest to government agencies and some enlightened professional
bodies who recognise the advantages of systems thinking for complex
problem solving.
5.5 Product life cycle
Essential idea: There are several key stages in the product life cycle.
Nature of design:
Designers need to consider the whole product
cycle of potential products, services and systems
throughout the design cycle and beyond. Products
may have an impact not only on the direct consumer
but also on society at large and the environment.
5.5 Product life cycle
Concepts and principles:
• Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
growth, maturity, decline
• Obsolescence: planned, style (fashion),
functional, technological
• Predictability of the product life cycle
• Product versioning/generations
5.5 Product life cycle
• Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
growth, maturity, decline
Examples of products at different stages of the
product life cycle including those new to the
market and classic designs
5.5 Product life cycle
• Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
growth, maturity, decline
Defined as the period that starts with the initial product design
(research and development) and ends with the withdrawal of the
product from the marketplace. A product life cycle is characterized by
specific stages, launch, growth, maturity, decline
• . Each stage in a product's life cycle is often linked with changes in the
flows of raw materials, parts and distribution to markets.
Conventionally, four main stages compose a product's life cycle:
5.5 Product life cycle
• Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
growth, maturity, decline
• Launch – products that are at the prototype stage or have only just
entered the market and are still gaining acceptance.
• The Hybrid Car, for example, is in its early stage of the design cycle,
because the makers of Hybrid Cars are making great advancements to
their product in a very small amount of time, so the Hybrid Car is still
researching and making changes to their product since they have first
emerged. They are still searching for the best and most efficient way
to produce energy from “clean fuel” and Fossil fuels combined to
consume dramatically less fossil fuels, and thus, cut expenses in
buying fuel that gets more and more expensive every day.
5.5 Product life cycle
• Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
growth, maturity, decline
• Launch :
This stage mainly concerns the development of a new product, from the time is
initially conceptualized to the point it is introduced into the market. The
corporation having an innovative idea first will often have a period of monopoly
until competitors start to copy and/or improve the product (unless a patent is
involved as it is the case in industries such as pharmaceuticals). Generally,
associated freight flows take place within developed countries and/or close to
markets where the product is likely to be adopted.
The need for immediate profit is not a pressure. The product is promoted to create
awareness. If the product has no or few competitors, a skimming price strategy is
employed. Limited numbers of product are available in few channels of
distribution.
5.5 Product life cycle
• Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
growth, maturity, decline
• Growth :
• If the new product is successful (many are not), sales will start to grow and
new competitors will enter the market, slowly eroding the market share of
the innovative firm. The product starts to be exported to other markets
and substantial efforts are made to improve its distribution since
competition mainly takes place more on the innovative capabilities of the
product than on its price.
• Competitors are attracted into the market with very similar offerings.
Products become more profitable and companies form alliances, joint
ventures and take each other over. Advertising spend is high and focuses
upon building brand. Market share tends to stabilize.
5.5 Product life cycle
• Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
growth, maturity, decline
• Maturity:
• At this stage, the product has been standardized, is widely available on the
market and its distribution is well established. Competition increasingly takes
place over cost and a growing share of the production takes place in low cost
locations. Associated freight flows are consequently modified to include a greater
transnational component.
• Those products that survive the earlier stages tend to spend longest in this phase.
Sales grow at a decreasing rate and then stabilize. Producers attempt to
differentiate products and brands are key to this. Price wars and intense
competition occur. At this point the market reaches saturation. Producers begin
to leave the market due to poor margins. Promotion becomes more widespread
and uses a greater variety of media.
5.5 Product life cycle
Mature – products that are selling to their maximum potential and
have gained acceptance.
Example: Ball point pen. The ballpoint pen is in the mature stage, as it
still sells well although the design does not change much. People all
over the world use pens everyday and people buy pens everyday, as it
is still being widely used in everyday life. The only thing that is being
changed to the pen today is its aesthetics and features. People create
pens in all different styles and sizes, and unique pen designs are
emerging everywhere.
Cars can be considered as being in the mature stage of the product
life cycle as they have already diffused well into the market, gained
acceptance and are still selling well. There are no signs of decline in
sales.
5.5 Product life cycle
Late – products which are in decline. Extension strategies may
be used and new forms of technology may be competing for
their share of the market. Example: Cassette tape. The cassette
tapes are in the last stage, as it has been overtaken by
successive generations of products. Today, nobody uses
cassette tapes anymore. The cassette tape is old technology.
Today, there is newer technology such as the CDs, which was
widely used during the early 2000s, and more recently the MP3
and the iPod. The cassette tape may still be used quite
extensively in third-world countries, but in the Western World, the
cassette tape is outdated, thus being in the late stage of the design
cycle.
5.5 Product life cycle
• Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
growth, maturity, decline
Class work:
Describe examples of products at different stages of the
product life cycle including those new to the
market and classic designs.
5.5 Product life cycle
• Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
growth, maturity, decline
5.5 Product life cycle
• Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
growth, maturity, decline
5.5 Product life cycle
• Obsolescence: planned, style (fashion),
functional, technological
• Planned obsolescence:
A conscious act either to ensure a continuing market or to ensure that
safety factors and new technologies can be incorporated into later
versions of the product.
Business practice of deliberately outdating an item (much before the end of its
useful life) by stopping its supply or service support and introducing a newer (often
incompatible) model or version. Its objective is to prod the consumer or user to
abandon the currently owned item in favor of the 'upgrade.'
5.5 Product life cycle
• Obsolescence: planned, style (fashion),
functional, technological
• Planned, obsolescence is the description given to something that
has been designed to have a limited working life.
• Planned obsolescence in the United Kingdom “is the process of a
product becoming obsolete and/or non-functional after a certain
period or amount of use in a way that is planned or designed by the
manufacturer”. Planned obsolescence can benefit the producer
because the product falls and the consumer is under pressure to
purchase again. The competitor can also depend on planned
obsolescence.
5.5 Product life cycle
• Obsolescence: planned, style (fashion),
functional, technological
• The concept is to hide the true cost per use from the consumer and
increase the price that they are willing to pay. The types of planned
obsolescence are technical, material, performance & style obsolescence
• Manufacturers may accelerate the obsolescence of a product by
introducing new, more desirable products or versions of the existing
product. . E.g. Toasters, electric kettles, refrigerators, televisions, mobile
phones.
• The iPod is a great example. The original iPod and iPod nano were
developed at the same time however the nano was not released until
years later!!
5.5
Product
life
cycle
• Predictability of the product life cycle
• Length of the product life cycle considering the
effect of technical development and consumer
Trends
As the pace of innovation increases
the product life cycle of a certain
product decreases /shortens .
• Such is the case in
laptop computers
which are an intensely
competitive market,
with size and power
being key issues
5.5 Product life cycle
• Obsolescence: planned, style (fashion),
functional, technological
• Fashion is a style of a trend
• McDonald’s Happy Meals – use latest kid’s
films to promote their product through
packaging and giveaways. The promotion is
linked to the length of time a film is a new
release, therefore it is planned
obsolescence.
5.5 Product life cycle
• Obsolescence: planned, style (fashion),
functional, technological
• Fashion has a very unpredictable effect on product replacement;
• Planned obsolescence results in more predictable product
replacement;
• the consumer declares the product obsolete in fashion due to peer
group pressure; the influence of media icons; different styles or
trends.
• The manufacturer builds in obsolescence, e.g. through the use of
less durable materials in planned obsolescence;
5.5 Product life cycle
• Product versioning/generations
Advantages and disadvantages for a company of introducing new versions and
generations of
a product
Advantages
• Increased wealth from sales but increased research and development
requirements. E.g. Planned obsolescence is advantageous for
manufacturers (a light bulb company that sold an everlasting light bulb
would make a lot of money in a short space of time, but soon put its
competitors, and itself, out of business).
• It keeps factory workers in jobs.
• Planned obsolescence is advantageous for manufacturers (a light bulb
company that sold an everlasting light bulb would make a lot of money
in a short space of time, but soon put its competitors, and itself, out of
business).
• Planned obsolescence is also useful in the fashion industry, where
styles change and develop (partly) due to people changing their
clothes when worn out.
5.5 Product life cycle
• Product versioning/generations
Advantages and disadvantages for a company of introducing new versions and
generations of
a product
Disadvantages
• Manufacturers have to invest in increased research and
development requirement which tends to be costly.
• There is a danger in abandoning the product from the market as a
result of failing safety testing (e.g. the crown iron).
• Planned obsolescence can be seen as a waste of natural resources
and a real problem in the management of the pollution it creates.
Disposable lighters, Macdonald's cartons, newspapers all use
massive amounts of energy to produce and yet have an extremely
limited useful life, creating an immense amount of waste with
little opportunity to recycle the materials used.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Essential idea: Innovations take time to diffuse into a target audience.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
Nature of design:
Rogers’ four main elements that influence the spread
of new ideas (innovation, communication channels,
time and a social system) rely heavily on human capital.
The ideas must be widely accepted in order to be self-sustainable.
Designers must consider various cultures
and communities to predict how, why and at what rate
new ideas and technology will be adopted.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
Concepts and principles:
• Diffusion and innovation
• The impact of Rogers’ characteristics on
consumer adoption of an innovation
• Social roots of consumerism
• The influence of social media on the diffusion of
innovation
• The influence of trends and the media on
consumer choice
• Categories of consumers in relation to
technology adoption
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Diffusion and innovation
Diffusion of innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and
at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures.
Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated
through certain channels over time among the participants in a social
system. The four main elements influence the spread of a new idea: the
innovation itself, communication channels, time, and a social system.
This process relies heavily on human capital.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Diffusion and innovation
Rogers was concerned that for individuals to adopt an innovation they
must make a conscious decision that overcomes their uncertainty
about the product or process. He wrote that innovation was not in
itself enough to convert people and that they may need to be
convinced through a communication process that provides some
evidence of future value, that ensures them that the innovation fits
into their value system, and that it do so without severely disrupting
their established habits and practices.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• The impact of Rogers’ characteristics on
consumer adoption of an innovation
Rogers defines several intrinsic characteristics of
innovations that influence an individual’s decision to
adopt or reject an innovation
.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations#Elements
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• The impact of Rogers’ characteristics on consumer adoption of an innovation
Factor
Definition
Relative advantage
How improved an innovation is over the previous generation.
Compatibility
The level of compatibility that an innovation has to be
assimilated into an individual’s life.
Complexity
If the innovation is perceived as complicated or difficult to use,
an individual is unlikely to adopt it.
Trialability
How easily an innovation may be explored. If a user is able to
test an innovation, the individual will be more likely to adopt it.
Observability
The extent that an innovation is visible to others. An
innovation that is more visible will drive communication
among the individual’s peers and personal networks and will,
in turn, create more positive or negative reactions.
.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• The impact of Rogers’ characteristics on consumer adoption of
an innovation
.
Class work :
Research examples of product innovations for each of Rogers’
characteristics.
Include:
-an image and description of the product
-explain how is this product an example of specific character
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
Concepts and principles:
• Social roots of consumerism
Consumerism is a social and economic order and ideology that encourages the
acquisition of goods and services in ever-greater amounts.
Consumerism is sometimes used in reference to the anthropological and biological
phenomena of people purchasing goods and consuming materials in excess of their
basic needs, which would make it recognizable in any society including ancient
civilizations (e.g. Ancient Egypt, Babylon and Ancient Rome). However, the concept
of consumerism is typically used to refer to the historically specific set of relations
of production and exchange that emerge from the particular social, political,
cultural and technological context of late 19th and early 20th century capitalism
with more visible roots in the social transformations of 16th, 17th and 18th century
Europe.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerism
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Social roots of consumerism
Consumerism is the social value that encourages people to purchase as
many things as they possibly can. And whilst buying is essential to the
survival of businesses, individuals and society as a whole, consumerism
encourages people to buy things that they do not actually need.
Instead it teaches that quality is more important than quantity.
Consumerism is largely a media-related idea with the billions of dollars
that are spent each year trying to convince people that if they do not
have this companies products then their lives will not be as good
http://www.lifepaths360.com/index.php/consumerism-and-lifestyle-380/
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Social roots of consumerism
Consumerism is the social value that encourages people to purchase as
many things as they possibly can. And whilst buying is essential to the
survival of businesses, individuals and society as a whole, consumerism
encourages people to buy things that they do not actually need.
Instead it teaches that quality is more important than quantity.
Consumerism is largely a media-related idea with the billions of dollars
that are spent each year trying to convince people that if they do not
have this companies products then their lives will not be as good
http://www.lifepaths360.com/index.php/consumerism-and-lifestyle-380/
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Social roots of consumerism
Compared with Americans in 1957, today we own twice as many cars
per person, eat out twice as often and enjoy endless other
commodities that weren't around then--big-screen TVs, microwave
ovens, SUVs and handheld wireless devices, to name a few. But are we
any happier?
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Social roots of consumerism
• We consume a variety of resources and products today having moved beyond basic
needs to include luxury items and technological innovations to try to improve
efficiency. Such consumption beyond minimal and basic needs is not necessarily a
bad thing in and of itself, as throughout history we have always sought to find ways
to make our lives a bit easier to live. However, increasingly, there are important
issues around consumerism that need to be understood. For example:
• How are the products and resources we consume actually produced?
• What are the impacts of that process of production on the environment, society, on
individuals?
• What are the impacts of certain forms of consumption on the environment, on
society, on individuals?
• Which actors influence our choices of consumption?
• Which actors influence how and why things are produced or not?
• What is a necessity and what is a luxury?
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Social roots of consumerism
• We consume a variety of resources and products today having moved beyond basic needs to
include luxury items and technological innovations to try to improve efficiency. Such
consumption beyond minimal and basic needs is not necessarily a bad thing in and of itself,
as throughout history we have always sought to find ways to make our lives a bit easier to
live. However, increasingly, there are important issues around consumerism that need to be
understood. For example:
• How do demands on items affect the requirements placed upon the environment?
• How do consumption habits change as societies change?
• Businesses and advertising are major engines in promoting the consumption of products so
that they may survive. How much of what we consume is influenced by their needs versus
our needs?
• Also influential is the very culture of today in many countries, as well as the media and the
political institutions themselves. What is the impact on poorer nations and people on the
demands of the wealthier nations and people that are able to afford to consume more?
• How do material values influence our relationships with other people?
• What impact does that have on our personal values?
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Social roots of consumerism
• Just from these questions, we can likely think of numerous others as well.
We can additionally, see that consumerism and consumption are at the
core of many, if not most societies. The impacts of consumerism, positive
and negative are very significant to all aspects of our lives, as well as our
planet. But equally important to bear in mind in discussing consumption
patterns is the underlying system that promotes certain types of
consumption and not other types.
• http://www.globalissues.org/issue/235/consumption-and-consumerism
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• The influence of trends and the media on
consumer choice
Issues for companies in the global marketplace
when attempting to satisfy consumer needs in
relation to lifestyle, values and identity
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• The influence of trends and the media on
consumer choice
http://www.ehow.com/about_6668278_consumer-needs_.html
• The term "consumer" refers to an individual who buys goods and services
for personal use. The consumer makes the decision on whether to
purchase a product or not; thus the consumer is the target of marketing
strategies. From an economic perspective, consumer needs control the
demands for goods and services. These needs may include unique wants,
wishes and desires, as well as emotional attachments towards products
and services.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• The influence of trends and the media on
consumer choice
• People make purchases to satisfy different kinds of needs. Abraham
Maslow, in the early 1940s, created the Hierarchy of Needs theory
which states that people are motivated by different levels of need.
These needs include: physiological, safety, belonging, esteem and selffulfillment. For example, product lines, such as phones created by
Nokia, have been successful because their campaign ad focuses on &
ldquo ;connecting people.& rdquo ; The line itself promotes satisfying
the need for belonging and love.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• The influence of trends and the media on
consumer choice
• New ideas and strategies for products and services surface when accurate
consumer needs are obtained and analyzed. For example, a clothing
company may have plans to launch a new line of clothing. To ensure
success, they may want to know what type of material and design that will
capture the customers& rsquo; interest. Accurate and current consumer
needs will greatly help the clothing company to devise a product line and a
marketing strategy that will sell. Certain improvements in other business
sectors, such as customer service and phone support, can also be made
through determining consumer needs. All of these adjustments and
improvements will result in consumer loyalty and patronage
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• The influence of trends and the media on
consumer choice
When a need is established, the choice of product or service to fully satisfy it
comes after. Factors that may influence the fulfillment of such needs are trust
and accessibility. If a product brand has been around for a long time or if it can
be found in most stores, it has a higher chance of being purchased. Personality
trait and characteristics are also factors that help determine how consumers
meet their needs. The pragmatic or practical individual is likely to buy useful,
cost-effective products. He prioritizes quality over visual appeal. Consumers
who value aesthetics will most probably look into the exterior beauty and
harmony of a product. Consumers may also base purchases on someone
else’s opinion. Cultural and social values also influence consumer
needs. Customers are attracted to product and services that promote
increased acceptance and favor in society
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Categories of consumers in relation to
technology adoption
http://suewaters.wikispaces.com/Rogers
Roger's categories are:
Innovators (2.5 %)
Early Adopters (13.5 %)
Early Majority (34 %)
Late Majority (34 %)
Laggards (16 %)
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
Rogers adopters characteristics are
important because:
A person's innovation
adoption characteristic
affects the rate of uptake
of an innovation over time
Different adopter groups
buy into innovation for different
reasons and have different
expectations
People who are innovators
and early adopters are easier
to convince to innovate
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
Rogers adopters characteristics are important because:
•Mainstream adopters need different support structure from
early adopters in terms of support, different
emphasis on technology and teaching practice.
•Innovators may require looser and less tightly controlled
conditions, while mainstream adopters may require more stability
and support
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Categories of consumers in relation to
technology adoption
Innovators and early adopters make up only
a small proportion of any population (2.5%
are innovators and early adopters about
13%) and there are not enough of them
to have an impact.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Categories of consumers in relation to
technology adoption
The early and late majority (called the
mainstream adopters) make up 64 % of any
population and these are the ones who can
make the difference to whether an innovation is embedded in an
organisation. The early majority are more practical: they do think through
the pros and cons of a new idea before they adopt, so they help to make it
more tangible and acceptable. But if the support systems and infrastructure
aren’t there, they’ll hold back on a commitment.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Categories of consumers in relation to
technology adoption
The late majority, on the other hand, are
creatures of habit and predictability. They
want to know the rules,
they love systems.
The beautiful thing about the late majority
is that when they don’t find rules or
systems, they’ll start figuring them out.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
• Categories of consumers in relation to
technology adoption
Laggards are very set in their way,
and will only adopt innovation
when it has become mainstream
i.e. standard practice in an organisation.
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
Categories of consumers in relation to
.technology adoption
5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
consumers
Categories of consumers in relation to
technology adoption
• Diffusion of existing technologies has
been measured using "S curves". These
technologies include radio, television,
VCR, cable, flush toilet, clothes washer,
refrigerator, home ownership, air
conditioning, dishwasher, electrified
households, telephone, cordless phone,
cellular phone, per capita airline miles,
personal computer and the Internet. This
data can act as a predictor for future
innovations.
The diffusion of innovations according to
Rogers. With successive groups of consumers
adopting the new technology (shown in blue),
its market share (yellow) will eventually reach
the saturation level. In mathematics the S
curve is known as the logistic function
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
• Essential idea: Successful innovations typically start with detailed
design and marketing specifications.
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
Nature of design:
Designers must establish clear parameters for a
marketing specification in order to create unique
and creative solutions to a problem. Designers need
to collect valid and useful data from the target
market and audience throughout the design cycle
to ensure the specification includes certain essential
components.
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
Concepts and principles:
• Target markets
• Target audiences
• Market analysis
• User need
• Competition
• Research methods
• Design specifications
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
• Target markets
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_market
A target market is a group of customers
towards which a business has decided to
aim its marketing efforts and ultimately its
merchandise.[1] A well-defined target
market is the first element to a marketing
strategy. The marketing mix variables of
product, place (distribution), promotion and
price are the four elements of a marketing
mix strategy that determine the success of a
product in the marketplace.
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
• Target markets
Target markets are groups of individuals that are separated by
distinguishable and noticeable aspects. Target markets can be separated by
the following aspects:
• segmentations - addresses (their location climate region)
• demographic/socioeconomic segmentation - (gender, age, income,
occupation, education, household size, and stage in the family life cycle)
• psychographic segmentation - (similar attitudes, values, and lifestyles)
• behavioral segmentation - (occasions, degree of loyalty)
• product-related segmentation - (relationship to a product)
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
• Target audiences
• In marketing and advertising, a target audience is a specific group of people
within the target market at which a product or the marketing message of a
product is aimed at. (Kotler 2000)... For example, if a company sells new diet
programs for men with heart disease problems (target market) the
communication may be aimed at the spouse (target audience) who takes care of
the nutrition plan of her husband and child.
• A target audience can be formed of people of a certain age group, gender,
marital status, etc., e.g. teenagers, females, single people, etc. A combination of
factors, e.g. men aged 20–30 is a common target audience. Other groups,
although not the main focus, may also be interested. Discovering the appropriate
target market(s)and determining the target audience is one of the most
important activities in marketing management (Niewenhuizen et al. 2000). The
biggest mistake it's possible to make in targeting is trying to reach everybody and
ending up appealing to no-one
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
• Market analysis
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_analysis
A market analysis studies the attractiveness and the dynamics of a special
market within a special industry. It is part of the industry analysis and thus
in turn of the global environmental analysis. Through all of these analyses
the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of a company
can be identified. Finally, with the help of a SWOT analysis, adequate
business strategies of a company will be defined.[1] The market analysis is
also known as a documented investigation of a market that is used to
inform a firm's planning activities, particularly around decisions of
inventory, purchase, work force expansion/contraction, facility expansion,
purchases of capital equipment, promotional activities, and many other
aspects of a company.
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
• User need
User needs refer to the data and metadata
requirements of persons or organisations to meet a
particular use or set of uses. Such needs may be
specified in terms of the quality dimensions
promulgated by international organisations or national
agencies
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
• Competition:
Rivalry in which every seller tries to get what other sellers are seeking
at the same time: sales, profit, and market share by offering the best
practicable combination of price, quality, and service. Where the
market information flows freely, competition plays a regulatory
function in balancing demand and supply.
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
• Research methods
• There are two categories of research
methods: qualitative and quantitative. Quantitative data
collection usually involves numbers, graphs and charts, whereas,
qualitative data collection methods deals with feelings and other
non-quantifiable elements.
• The most popular qualitative methods of data collection and
analysis in business studies are interviews, focus groups,
observation, case studies, games and role playing etc.
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
• Research methods
• Popular quantitative methods of data collection and analysis, on
the other hand, include correlation analysis, regression analysis,
mean, mode and median and others.
• Questionnaires can be used as qualitative, as well as, quantitative
method. Specifically, if open-ended questions are used qualitative
methods will be used for data analysis. Alternatively, if
questionnaire consists of closed-ended questions, then
quantitative approach is adopted for data analysis.
5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
specifications
• Design specifications
Essential qualitative and quantitative characteristic that set criteria
(such as performance requirements, dimensions, weight, reliability,
ruggedness) to be satisfied in designing a component, device, product,
or system.