Summary
Despite the new world order it is an established fact that African states continue the colonial era
system of remaining fragmented from each other. In particular, this malaise is further evident in the
economic and social disintegration that has begotten African states since post colonialism. However,
in the midst of this observation, the point should be made that from a historical perspective, there
existed a time wherein African states coexisted in a homogeneous fashion with each other. This in
turn created a mutually beneficial system from which derived powerful African dynasties and
empires; a far cry from that of the individualist African states of the modern era. Thus as the issue of
social integration among African states is grappled upon, it should be inferred that Africa has done
so successfully in the past, and with the right frameworks befitting of the new world order, this
success can be achieved again.
This paper intends to illustrate that during the pre-colonial era the social structure of African states
particularly those of the West African sub-region, existed in a mutually beneficial order with each
other. This is especially so because statehood during this timeframe was dictated on the basis of
ethnic alliances, which fostered trade and cultural development within the region. Examples of such
are the Fulani tribesmen who patrolled as far east as Sokoto in Nigeria, up to the city of Gao in Mali.
However, the advent of Colonialism led to the demise of this system as it brought with it the
displacement of ethnic groups who found themselves partitioned by colonial established boundaries.
However, in dealing with present day challenges of integration within West Africa from a social
perspective, we raise the issues of xenophobia which has put brother against brother, as citizens of
more affluent countries in the region discriminate against those of lesser stature, in the name of
fending off takers of their limited employment opportunities or in the name of preserving their selfidentity. In this light, we bring up the example of the Ivory Coast and the xenophobic attacks
perpetrated against their neighbors from Mali and Burkina Faso. The paper also raises the linguistic
barriers faced in West Africa, in the form of Anglophone and Francophone speaking countries, and
how this divide in language has been a challenging aspect deterring further social integration from
taking place in the region. With all the listed challenges we further make the case that the biggest of
them all is in regards to the issue of corruption, which we believe to be the underpinning of all that
is wrong with integrating the sub-region. Social ills such as bribery along the border crossings of
each country, or illegal check points erected by local police are all big constraints to a more cohesive
union between West African states.
However, despite the challenges, all is not lost. We make the case that there are several solutions
which if put in place can lead to a more socially integrated West African society. Specifically, we
delve into the influential role which women can play towards integration. In particular, we give
several explanations of the successful cultural exchanges which women have spearheaded in the
region, such as unifying the gastronomy of the region, the beauty and hair regiments of women in
the region, as well as the garments which women in the region all wear. Additionally, we point out
that another influential tool of integration is that of labor migration. We use the examples of the
Krios from Sierra Leone, who migrated to the Gambia for purposes of work, and who over several
decades formed their own ethnicity in the country, thereby making them more Gambian than they
are Sierra Leonean. We also mention the important role of education, meaning education via the
media, sporting events, or from the classroom and how each of these mediums has enlightened the
West African public on how their neighbors across the region live.
To be certain that our solutions are tangible, we examine the European Union and its inception. We
determine whether this community whose history of autonomous states coming together as a
collective in order to foster better social and economic development for its citizens, could be a role
model which countries in West African can emulate. Lastly, we reiterate the fact that from a precolonial perspective, integration in the region worked fluidly. However, despite mishaps that have
happened following this era there is still encouraging news leading us to suggest that West Africa will
in the future be as socially integrated as it has been in the past. Particularly, the growing trend within
the region’s Francophone community of having a shared currency, language, religious beliefs and
customs, assures us that integration in West Africa is a tangible possibility which can be achieved.
Introduction
With a concentration on West Africa, part one (1) of this paper delves into the historical framework
of social integration from which Africa evolved and the subsequent defragmentation of this system
with the advent of colonialism. We provide an in-depth narrative of successful empires such as the
Songhai, Mali and Sokoto Empires of West Africa that practiced a highly developed system of trade
amongst each other as well as with their neighbors. We also provide specific examples of the societal
structure that allowed for harmonious social interactions amongst themselves as well as foreign
parties from Arabia and the West that frequented their shores. Additionally, we provide background
on the calamity of post-colonialism which killed off the old system of social integration in the
region. Specifically, we delve into the scramble for Africa, which led to the partitioning of Africa
into geographical zones irrespective of the tribal affiliations. Thus, we give examples of the
partitioning of the Ewes of modern day Ghana and Togo, and the Wolofs of modern day Senegal
and The Gambia.
In part two (2) we examine modern hindrances to social integration in West Africa. Specifically, we
focus on the three challenges, namely; corruption, linguistic barrier of being Francophone and
Anglophone speaking countries and cultural challenges such as xenophobia among citizenry, We
make the case that combined, these challenges form the underpinning for the lack of social
integration among West African states to date. We further go on to make the case that of all the
hindrances to social integration in West Africa, the most critical and in need of urgent attention is
the issue of corruption. Via the use of statistical data, literature and findings from organizations such
as Borderless West Africa, we demonstrate how the issue of corruption, particularly along border
crossings in West Africa is arguably the biggest hindrance to the social integration of states. In other
words, the malaise of corruption produces disruptive societal problems such as added restrictions in
the free movement of goods and persons along the various country borders, increased bureaucratic
procedures along border lines, and increased time constraints during crossing, in addition to other
mishaps.
In part three (3) of our paper we propose solutions which have the ability to foster better social
adhesion among West African states. We make the case that labor migration, women as cultural
ambassadors, and education, are all attributes which can propel the issue of social integration in
West Africa. Furthermore, the paper goes on to provide a case study of the European Union, which
faced most of the same integration woes that currently plagues West Africa. Thus, from the EU’s
experience we make note of how they have successfully handled such issues and the positives which
West African states can emulate from the Europeans.
Lastly in part four (4) we conclude our paper by reiterating the fact that though Colonialism severely
hampered the dynamics of social integration in West Africa, avenues still exist whereby progress can
be made in fostering a more cohesive West African society regardless of present day geographical
limitations. Furthermore, we use the present day Francophone experience to show that there is hope
for change, and show the tepid progress which this community has made in maintaining a sense of
social integration despite the odds of present day obstacles.
PART 1
The era pre-dating colonialism in West Africa personifies the golden age of unsoiled social
integration amongst the peoples of this region. During this period, the self-identity of persons was
defined not by geographical lines, but via the auspices of tribal affiliations. From the smaller
communities such as the peoples of Fouta Djallon to the bigger dynasties such as the Mali Empire,
the peoples of West Africa co-existed in a socially integrated fashion with each other. This in turn
fostered mutually beneficial trade and civil alliances within the region, as well as in their dealings
with the outside world. In fact, it is noted that 1“prior to the European voyages of exploration in the
fifteenth century, African rulers and merchants had established trade links with the Mediterranean
world, Western Asia, and the Indian Ocean region. Furthermore, within the context of the continent
itself, local exchanges among adjacent peoples fit into a greater framework of long-range trade. So
by the time Europeans began trading along the Atlantic coast of West Africa, they therefore
encountered a well-established trading population regulated by savvy and experienced local rulers”.
Furthermore, from a local perspective it is also noted that states such as the Sokoto Empire in what
is present day northern Nigeria traded and intermingled extensively with neighboring states such as
the Asante in present day Ghana, and as far reaching as parts of present day Chad, Cameroon, Benin
and Republic of Niger.
1
Bortolot, Alexander. “Trade Relations among Europeans and African Nations”. Columbia University, Department
of Art History, October 2003.
In fact, the level of societal integration in pre-colonial West Africa was developed to the extent that
the region forged an effective ethnic-religious diaspora system for the purpose of trading with each
other. In essence, the genesis of ancient West African states was based primarily on tribal linkages.
So for the purpose of trading for example, intricate alliances were formed throughout the region on
the basis of common ethnicity and religion. The ethnic-religious diaspora became a widespread and
important feature of West African commercial life, especially in the long distance trade. For
example, 2“the members of a particular diaspora often monopolized trade on a given route. Such
trading diasporas operated inside and across the territories of states, and this applied even in routes
where states did not exist. However, the ethnic diaspora cemented by inter-marriage and by
cultivating a sense of distinct identity provided a “moral community” within which agency problems
could be overcome. For example, among the Hausa diaspora that conducted most the long-distance
trade of the eastern half of West Africa, traded caravans moved between market places, at which the
itinerants would stay with landlords from the same ethnic group, who would introduce them to local
trading partners and generally assist them to make contracts. Credit would also be available between
members of the same diaspora: ‘moral hazard’ being reduced by common membership. It was
reduced also by common religion, which in the case of the Hausa diasporas, and also the Dioula
ones that enjoyed an equivalent dominance in the western half of West Africa, was Islam”.
However, the dawn of the fifteenth century brought about the perils of colonialism which saw the
systematic degradation of ancient alliances and societal structures that existed in West Africa. The
effects of the transatlantic slave trade placed tribes against each other as each fought for their
survival. Furthermore, if the slave trade didn’t create enough havoc in terms of disintegrating the
social structures in the region, the introduction of colonialism certainly can be seen as the straw that
broke the camel’s back. In other words, Western powers met at the Berlin Conference and
concocted what was called the scramble for Africa. In this period 3“the prospective colonizers
partitioned Africa into spheres of influence, protectorates, colonies and free-trade areas. The borders
were designed in European capitals at a time when Europeans had barely settled in Africa with little
knowledge of the geography and ethnic composition of the areas where borders were being
designed. Furthermore, despite their arbitrariness these borders endured after African
independence”. For example, as a result of the colonial partitioning of Africa, the peoples of the
2
Austin, Gareth. “Markets With, Without, and in Spite of States: West Africa in the Pre-colonial Nineteenth
Century”. London School of Economics, Department of Economic History, March 2004.
3
Stelios, Michalpoulos. “The long-run effects of the Scramble for Africa”. VOX, January 2012
Wolof tribe split between present day countries of the Gambia and Senegal, the peoples of the Ewe
tribe split between present day Ghana and Togo, the peoples of the Anyi tribe split between Ghana
and the Ivory Coast, and the most shocking of them all is the Malinke peoples which split between
the six West African countries of present day Senegal, The Gambia, Sierra Leone, Mali, the Ivory
Coast, and the Republic of Guinea. 4“Thus given this statistics, it is safe to say that the most impact
of the European influence in West Africa was not colonialism per se, but the improper ethnic
border partitioning which the Europeans caused in the region, and consequences of which are being
felt up till present day”.
PART 2
Albeit the perils of colonialism one cannot justify the current dissatisfied state of social integration
among West African states to this reason alone. In this modern era, there are also additional
challenges which hamper the mutually beneficial cohesion among states as in the past. In particular,
the challenges being that of corruption, linguistic barrier of being Francophone and Anglophone
speaking countries and cultural challenges such as xenophobia among citizenry
2.1: Linguistic Barriers
One of the lasting residues of colonialism is that in addition to geographical boundaries, it also
created linguistic boundaries among countries. This is so because countries in West Africa, even
after colonialism ended countries adopted the language of their colonizers as the official language of
the land. In most instances it was English, French, or Portuguese. As a result, no longer were
countries even though next door neighbors easily able to communicate with each other. This in turn
led to the severing of social ties among areas which in the past intermingled with each other on the
basis of a shared mother tongue. Taking the Wolof peoples of present day Senegal and the Gambia
as an example, before colonialism Wolof tribesmen on either side of the River Gambia where of
Wolof ethnicity and shared the same social norms and practices be it marriages, agriculture, or
kinship with each other. However, post colonialism era placed a huge damper on the fluidity with
4
Austin, Gareth. “Markets With, Without, and in Spite of States: West Africa in the Pre-colonial Nineteenth
Century”. London School of Economics, Department of Economic History, March 2004
which this community existed as the Wolof of present day Senegal speak French as their official
language, while the Wolof of the Gambia speak English as their official language.
2.2: Xenophobia among Citizenry
One of the other side effects of being socially disintegrated is the development of national identities
strictly along geographical boundaries to such an extent that everything else around is treated as
foreign or ‘other”. As a result, this inbreeds the dogma of xenophobia whereby citizens in a given
state discriminate against those from neighboring countries on the basis that they are not their
countrymen. If we take the Ivory Coast as an example, one of the factors for the recently ended civil
war was the idea that foreigners from neighboring countries such as Mali and Burkina Faso were
pouring into the Ivory Coast causing crime, and taking away much needed jobs from the local
populace. This tragedy is even more tenfold when considering the fact that up to fifty percent
Ivorians share the same tribal make up with people from Mali and Burkina Faso. In essence, as a
result of the geographical boundaries which came about due to colonialism, citizens from the Ivory
Coast glorified their nationhood, which they referred to as “Ivorite” and rebuked the notion of
shared ethnicity which that of their neighbors.
2.3: Corruption
However, despite the current challenges that continue to hinder West African states from further
social integration, none other aspect has stifled this development as much as the issue of corruption.
In other words, the endemic social ills of bribery and corruption continue to plague the borders of
West African states to such an extent that it disrupts the free movement of persons, goods, and
community life at large. The state of corruption is so wide spread particularly when it involves the
crossing of borders from one West African country to another that if left unaddressed, will forever
inhibit the ability of West African to be socially and economically integrated. For example, 5“ to
move goods along the Accra to Lagos corridor, transporters encounter up to forty (40) fees payment
request from unscrupulous border agents and police officers”, . This is all despite the fact that the
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) doctrine states that there shall be free
5
Lamport, Joe: “Borderless 2012: A unified voice emerges in Abidjan as stakeholders convene to increase trade”.
West Africa Trade Hub, June 2012.
movement of persons and goods from one West African country to another. In this light, onerous
procedures, excessive documentation, harassment by unscrupulous agents and other time wasting
activities, are all pertinent issues which need to be dealt with in order for better integration of states
within the West African sub region.
The agency Borderless West Africa, which is a United States Aid assisted project, set up a study to
observe the current crisis plaguing the free movement of persons and goods within West Africa.
Mapped out below is a summary of what they discovered as follows:
In essence, the map demonstrates that when it comes to bribery and corruption along the borders of
West African countries, 6“the Ouagadougou-Bamako corridor has the highest record of bribes in the
sub-region. In terms of country specifics, Mali remains the country were bribes are the highest in the
region when attempting to cross from one border to another. This is followed by Cote d’Ivoire in
second place because of the hike in bribes from Police, and Ghana’s border with Burkina Faso
commanders the least amount of bribes”.
PART 3
However, despite the challenges that inhibit effective social integration from taking root in West
Africa, all is not lost. It is should be noted that there are certain avenues if applied, have the ability to
foster better social adhesion within the sub-region. We make the case that labor migration, women
as cultural ambassadors, and education, form the underlying basis whereby mutually beneficial
integration can be fostered between West African countries.
3.1: Women as Cultural Ambassadors
Since the beginning of humankind women have always been the backbone of society. For it is in
their nature to be nurturing and to tolerate the egos of men even in the midst of adversity. Within
the context of society and in particular West African society, women have often been an integral
part of the social sphere, from a cultural and even economic perspective. For example, West African
cuisines with the exception of small variations are all the same. This is undoubtedly as a result of the
handiwork of women, who knowingly or unknowingly have unified the culinary diet of the region
via various intermingling. For the “Jollof Rice” of Nigeria is the same “Chep” of Senegal and the
same “Riz au Gras” in the Ivory Coast. Thus, women have in the past and as well as in the present
continued to shape the social cohesion of the region through food. They act as flag bearers of
integration from a personal level, and their effectiveness so far should not be downplayed. In the
same token, the often celebrated art of hair braiding has its roots primarily from West Africa, and
just like food in the region, women have traversed geographical boundaries when it comes to their
beauty regiment, especially when it comes to hair braiding. For once again, the same corn-rows
6
West Africa Trade Hub. “21st Road Governance Report UEMOA”. Road Governance Initiative, July-September,
2012.
which is plaited on the heads of school children in Sierra Leone, is the same style which exists on the
heads of school children in Burkina Faso. Somehow, throughout the partitioning of different
ethnicities in the region, the women of West Africa have always held true to their culture of hair
braiding and this is reflected from one country to another, regardless of geography.
Furthermore, if men were considered the stalwarts of integration during the pre-colonial era wherein
tribesmen traded from one end of West Africa to another via ancient routes and caravans, then
women of present day West Africa can be considered the current carriers of the system. If for
example we examine the business etiquette of women across the region, we see that strong trade
links exist despite the challenges of poor infrastructure, lack of a unified currency, among others.
Specifically, if one is to dissect the fabric business of materials such as Bazin, Wax, and Cotton, we
can easily pick up trade routes which West African women, whom mostly are petty traders, make in
order to gain access to their markets. An example of such is Fulani/Mandigo woman Astou, from
the Republic of Sierra Leone. In the capital city of Freetown, she runs a small scale but booming
business selling the popular West African fabric called ‘Bazin” which originates primarily from Mali.
As a business woman, each time Astou needs to replenish her stock, she makes the arduous journey
via local buses first to the neighboring country of Guinea. In Guinea, because she is of the Fulani
tribe, she has no problem communicating with the locals there as a majority of the population in
Guinea is Fulani. Accordingly, she is able to bypass the need for speaking French, with Guinea being
French-speaking, and she being an Anglophone. From Guinea, she catches another local bus which
takes her to Mali. In Mali, Astou is able to buy her merchandise of Bazin fabric to replenish her
shop in Sierra Leone. Once again, she bypasses the need to speak French in Mali, by communicating
with the locals there in Mandingo, which in Mali is referred to as Bambara. Upon completion of her
purchases, Astou then makes the journey back via the same route in reverse order to Sierra Leone.
Thus with an example of Astou’s in mind, it is imperative to make the case that women traders in
present day West Africa, are an essential pillar in furthering integration within the sub-region.
3.2: Labor Migration
One of the silent but potent drivers of social integration is the ability of citizens from a given
country to migrate elsewhere and establish roots in their new country. History has shown time and
again that self-identity is fluid, and it takes only one generation to become interwoven and part and
parcel of another culture. In the same way so, self-identity in West African is a constantly changing
prism and this is driven to a large extent by labor migration of citizens from one country to another.
Taking the experience of the Ivory Coast as an example, we see that this country being a regional
commercial hub drew to its shores not only migrant workers but people who migrated permanently
to the Ivory Coast, to such an extent that they became intertwined with the local fabric of society. In
particular, migrant worker from the Republic of Mali and from Burkina Faso who moved to the
Ivory Coast as workers supplanted themselves so effectively in the country that in the northern half
of the country, it is almost impossible to distinguish between which persons are originally from Mali,
Burkina Faso or the Ivory Coast. As such, one can make the case that labor migration has insofar
proven to be an effective tool in bringing about social integration among the peoples of West Africa.
In the same light, we see the same positive effects of labor migration between the peoples of Sierra
Leone and the Gambia. For instance, in earlier years the Gambia suffered from having an unskilled
workforce especially in the areas of teaching, the judiciary, and accounting. As such, Sierra Leoneans
citizens given the stagnant economic plight in their country migrated in droves to the Gambia as
teachers, lawyers, accounts and in other civil servant capacities. With time, this burgeoning class of
Sierra Leonean workers grew to such an extent that they formed their own ethnic group in the
Gambia called the “Krios”. The Krios up till date continue to play a vital role in the administrative
running of the country, and have assimilated into become more Gambian than their former heritage
of being Sierra Leoneans. Consequently, we see once again that labor migration has changed the
social landscape within the West African sub-region, and continues to play a pivotal role in regional
integration.
3.3: Education
Education has always been an effective tool in disseminating information about what we normally
consider to be “the other”, in other words anything that is different from what we know. In this
regard, educations of any form; be it through media, the classroom, or via sports, are important
components of social integration. From a West African standpoint for example, media shows such
as West African idol, or sporting events such as the regional Football Zone Two Championships,
have proven to be effective educational tools for West Africans to learn about each other. For via
theses mediums, citizens have seen on TVs, the lifestyles and day to day experience of a singer in
another West African country, or have learnt via the soliloquy from the sports announcer the history
and or adversities of regional teams as well as that of their country. So through these various
avenues of education, citizens in the sub-region though sometimes far apart from each other have
become somewhat educated on the activities that transpire in neighboring countries.
3.4: Social Integration and the European Union a Case Study
Europe as we know it for the most part operates under one blanket referred to as the European
Union. This Union comprises of several states in the Western and Eastern hemisphere of Europe
united to forge a better economic, social and political destiny for its peoples. However, this was not
always the case, as each country before the establishment of the EU in 1993 existed autonomously.
Thus countries like France, Germany, Portugal, Spain, Czech Republic, and the other twenty -three
states of the present day EU all had their own individual currencies, passports, border patrols,
among others. However, with the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 the EU was formed,
aligning member states into a single unit.
Thus since its inception, the EU has become an emblem of a successful integration scheme covering
a wide geographical zone which comprised of different cultures, languages, currencies, among
others. Some of the most celebrated attributes of the EU integration is that 7“the states committed
themselves to a border-free Europe in which EU citizens could circulate freely, while external
frontier controls were to be harmonized and tightened. In essence, an area without internal frontiers
in which the free movement of goods, persons, services and capital is ensured. In addition, the EU’s
mandate is to enact legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade,
agriculture, fisheries, and regional development. Furthermore, through the Common Foreign and
Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defense. It has established
permanent diplomatic missions around the world as well as represented within the United Nations,
the WTO, the G8 and other world governing bodies”.
With this in mind, West African countries have a living breathing example in the European Union of
how a body of states can put cultural, linguistic, and monetary differences aside, and come together
in order to propel themselves socially and economically forward as one collective unit. When we
examine the context from which the EU derived, it bears glaring similarities to that of the situation
wherein countries in the West African sub-region find themselves presently. Thus, the case can be
made that West Africa stands on the precipice of a crossroads between continuing the current
7
European Commission: “Migration and Social Integration of Migrants”. Directorate General for Research, January
2003.
autonomous route which currently exists for each country, or that of the European Union route, in
which countries realize the benefits of working together as a single unit. If social integration proved
to be mutually beneficial for member states of the EU, West African states should be of the
sentiment that this system could also be beneficial for them.
PART 4
In conclusion, it is important to reiterating the fact that though Colonialism severely hampered the
dynamics of social integration in West Africa, avenues exist whereby progress can be made in
fostering a more cohesive West African society regardless of present day geographical limitations. In
particular, the present day Francophone experience in the region illustrates the hope of tepid
progresses being made in maintaining a sense of social integration despite the obstacles of present
day. For example, West African Francophone communities of the Ivory Coast, Niger, Burkina Faso,
Mali, and Senegal all share a common currency known as the CFA. This alone has been a unifying
bond for these countries as a single currency allows for the free flow of persons and goods across
borders. Additionally, this group of countries has utilized their shared official language of French to
act as their common lingua franca which binds their population together regardless of ethnic
differences. Lastly, for the most part, these countries have a majority of their land mass situated
along the northern West African region, which by all accounts is predominantly Muslim.
Consequently, the Francophone community has been able to use Islam as a means of fostering
social cohesion among the local populace, and in so doing advance regional integration.
In retrospect, it is understandable to be concerned about the challenges which West Africa faces in
terms of social integration. However, as the evidence has shown, these drawbacks can be defeated
with interventions such as the utilization of women as cultural ambassadors, labor migration and
through education. Thus in the end, integration of the peoples of the West African sub-region which
we hope for is a tangible possibility that can be achieved.
References
Austin, Gareth. “Markets With: Without, and in Spite of States: West Africa in the Pre-colonial
Nineteenth Century”. London School of Economics, Department of Economic History, March
2004.
Bortolot Alexander Ives. “Trade Relations among Europeans and African Nations”. Columbia
University, Department of Art History, October, 2003.
European Commission. “Migration and Social Integration of Migrants”. Directorate General for
Research, January 2003.
Konseinga, Adama. “Household Migration Decisions as Survival Strategy: The Case of Burkina
Faso”. University of Bonn, October, 2005.
Kress, Brad. “Burkina Faso: Testing the Tradition of Circular Migration”. The Centre for Research
Into Economic and Social Trends, May, 2006.
Lamport, Joe. “Borderless 2012: A unified voice emerges in Abidjan as stakeholders convene to
increase trade”. West Africa Trade Hub, June 2012.
Stelios, Michalopoulos. “The long-run effects of the Scramble for Africa”. VOX, January, 2012.
West Africa Trade Hub. “21st Road Governance Report UEMOA”. Road Governance Initiative,
July-September 2012.