AP Laboratory Review
12 labs
One Free Response Questions
Diffusion and Osmosis
•
•
•
•
Water Potential
Osmosis
Diffusion
Hyper, Hypo, Isotonic
Potato
Before
Molarity of
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.7
0.65
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.66
Potato After
0.6
0.5
0.7
1
0.8
0.69
Change
-0.1
-0.15
0
0.1
0.1
0.03
% change in
mass
-14%
-23%
0%
11%
14%
5%
% change in mass
Change in Mass by %
20%
10%
0%
-10% 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
-20%
-30%
Molarity
0.8
1
1.2
Series1
Linear (S
Enzyme Catalase
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Substrate
Enzyme
Titration? Gas produced pressure
Hydrogen Peroxide
Effect Temp.
Effect pH
Effect Substrate
Effect Enzyme
Ml. substrate consumed
Chart Title
1
21
58
0.5
0
30
92
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
100
temp. deg. C
ml Sub. Consumed
Poly. (ml Sub. Consumed)
120
Mitosis and Meiosis
• Stages of Mitosis
• Meisosis
• Crossing Over
Photosynthesis lab
• Chromatography
• Measure Rate of Photosynthesis
Transpiration lab
• Temp.
• Wind Speed
• Relative Humidity
Vascular Tissue
Xylem (wood)
trachieds and vessel elements
make up xylem. They are
nonliving conduits with openings
at the ends for water movement.
Transport in Vascular Plants
• Water and minerals begin
movement by osmosis.
through root and root hair
Transport in Plants cont.
capillary action in xylem
vessel element
Adhesion-water vessel
wall
Cohesion- water to water
transpiration out through
stoma.
H2O
closed
Group
Time
10
20
30
Room
0.06
0.04
0.03
Heat
0.07
0.07
0.07
Fan
0.03
0.05
0.01
Closed Bag
0.07
0.07
0.05
0
0
0
0.03
0.09
0.03
Closed Bottom
Closed Top
Light
Bottle
B
O
D
db
Scree
n1
2
3
4
8 Nutrients
Day 1
DO
7
5.5
6
5.5
90
90
Day 3
7
5.5
DO
5
4
5
2
CO2
10
18
8
14
DO
7
2
2
5.5
CO2
9
17
19
12
CO2
% light
Db- dark bottle
90
6
5
BOD
biological oxygen demand
Primary Productivity
Gross Productivity
NET Productivity= GP- Respiration
eutrophication
• Raises productivity but results in much
decomposition lowering DO and raising
CO2
•PPLL X ppll
•F1 all PpLl
•F2 PpLl X PpLl
•From 500 offspring
•281 purple long
•93 purple round
•93 red long
•31 red round
•F2 hybrid crosses
•Should yield a
•9:3:3:1 ratio
Linkage Maps
• Map units or centimorgans
= cross over or
recombination frequencies
Based on crossover
frequencies or the
frequencies that genes
are recombined in ways
that suggest they are
linked together.
Measured in linkage units
or Morgan Units
18%
•6 %
C
D
B
A
5%
13%
C----7----A----6----B---5--D
*If the ratios deviate from the expected ratio
they could indicate that genes are linked.
*If genes are linked they are inherited together
unless they are separated as a result of crossing
over. Resulting in 1:1:1:1 ratios
*The frequency that these genes are then
separated represents the relative distance they
are from each other.
Hardy-Weinberg- Microevolution
• Describes those conditions that can lead
to changes within a population’s genes
GENE POOL- the sum total of all
genes in a breeding population
GENETIC DRIFT- changes in the
frequency of an allele
The gene frequencies of alleles
• For a gene locus where only two genes
occur in a pop. Let p = the frequency of
one allele and q = the frequency of the
other.
• Then p + q = 1 ex. ( A + a = 1 )
When gametes combine:
The probability of generating a AA genotype
is p2
The probability of generating a aa genotype
is q2
The prob. of Aa is 2pq
Hardy -Weinberg Principle
States that if the following conditions
occur that the gene pool will not
change:
•
•
•
•
•
if matings are random
if there are no mutations
if there are no migrations
if the population remains large
if there is no natural selection
These do not all happen in
Nature !!!!!!
The principle is stated as a null hypothesis
Any one of these conditions lead to genetic
change?
• If matings are not random not all genes
are shared equally ( Amish, Jews, and
other isolated groups )
• Migrations add to or remove genes
• Mutation- changes gene pool quickly
• Populations are small - inbreeding
Evolution
of
Populations
Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes
microevolution or changes within a
populations gene pool
The equation used to express gene
frequencies within a pop.
P2 +2pq +q2 = 1
The Bottleneck Effect
• Natural disasters reduce the
size of a population. The
smaller population is more
subject to change than the
main group.
The Founder Effect
• When a few individuals
colonize a new habitat.
• Galapagous Islands
DNA Technology
•
•
Biotechnology or genetic engineering – the
use of natural biological systems to produce
a product desired by human beings
Examples include:
•
•
•
•
•
Gene Cloning
DNA Amplification
Transgenic Organisms
Gene Therapy
Chromosome Mapping and
Sequencing
Gene Cloning
Gene Cloning
• Recombinant DNA –
DNA from two different
sources (human and E.
coli)
• Plasmid – circular DNA
used to transport the
gene into the organism
• Enzymes needed –
Restriction and Ligase
• Host cell – usually bacteria,
wall must become
competent in order for the
bacteria to uptake the
•Restriction enzyme
cleaves DNA and allows
for DNA fragment to
insert at the sticky ends
•Vector – method of
transporting a gene
cDNA
• Use a reverse
transcriptase ( viral
enzyme )
Causes an isolated mRNA
strand to be transcribed into
DNA
Sanger Method of DNA Sequencing
1.
Heat DNA Strands until they
separate
2. Add nucleotides and DNA
Polymerase
3. Add Dedeoxynucleotides (A, T, G,
and C) at different time periods to stop
replication
4. Place fragments in to Gel
Electrophoresis
5. Allow to migrate and read the Base
Sequence
DNA Amplification- clone or PCR
Polymerase Chain Reaction
– PCR
• Used to make multiple
copies of the same
gene (amplify)
Probes
–Use radioactive isotopes
Phosphorous
–Will hybridize with
complimentary strands
Electrophoresis
• Restriction enzymes –
sequence- determine the
order of the bases
• RFLPs – Restriction Fragment
Length Polymorphisms – used
to probe a region of DNA or to
identify individuals
DNA Fingerprinting
• Treat suspects’ blood with the same
restriction enzyme
• Place sample in Gel Electrophoresis
• Allow samples to migrate
• Compare the suspects with the blood
found at the crime scene
• Used in Criminal Trials: OJ Simpson
– OJ – DNA was an exact match yet he was
found not guilty?
Human Genome Project
• Map the entire human genome
• Start with a linkage map
• Use probes and sequencers
Human Genome Project
• A single human chromosome may contain
more than 250 million DNA base pairs,
and it is estimated that the entire human
genome consists of about 3 billion base
pairs.
• The ultimate goal of HGP is to associate
human traits and inherited diseases with
particular genes.
• It promises to revolutionize both
therapeutic and preventive medicine
Chromosome Mapping
• 30,000 human genes
• RFLPs – Restriction Fragment Length
Polymorphisms – used to tag a region
of DNA – visible under a microscope
• Restriction enzymes – sequence AA
• Specific base digestion
Gene Therapy
• Delivering the defective gene to the cells
that need it to produce a protein
• Cystic Fibrosis
• Vector – method of transporting a gene
(virus, plasmid)
– Mechanical - usually a laboratory tool
used (inoculating loop)
– Biological - part or whole of an organism
(bacteria)