SESSION 2
Physical Education and the Growing Child
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Course Journal
- Session 2
- Topic of your choice
Report on Journal Article
- Due October 21st
Group Assignment
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Stages of Growth
and Development
Factors which
influence learning/
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Learning
Characteristics
The concept of
lifespan in Phys. Ed.
Motivation and
goal-setting
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Cognitive – Piaget
Psychosocial Development – Erikson
Developmental Tasks – Havighurst
Physiological Development
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stom/Sitename/DAM/094/table_2_Mai
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Middle Childhood
(6-12)
1. Learning physical skills
necessary for ordinary
games
2. Building a wholesome
attitude toward oneself
3. Learning to get along with
age-mates
4. Learning an appropriate
sex role
5. Developing fundamental
skills in reading, writing,
and calculating
6. Developing concepts
necessary for everyday
living
7. Developing conscience,
morality, and a scale of
values
8. Achieving personal
independence
9. Developing acceptable
attitudes toward society
Adolescence
(13-18)
1. Achieving mature relations
with both sexes
2. Achieving a masculine or
feminine social role
3. Accepting one's physique
4. Achieving emotional
independence of adults
5. Preparing for marriage and
family life
6. Preparing for an economic
career
7. Acquiring values and an
ethical system to guide
behavior
8. Desiring and achieving
socially responsible
behavior
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/won_117.html
ITEM
CHARACTERISTICS
Nervous ,
• Brain approaches adult size
Muscular and
• Muscles grow rapidly
Skeletal Systems • Very active, little fear of danger
• Bones continue to harden
• Chest shaped like an adult’s by age six
• Legs and feet grow faster than the trunk
• Able to walk, skip, jump, run etc
Sensory Organs
• Normal vision by age five with limited peripheral
vision
Respiratory
System
• Diaphragmatic breathing
• Reduced respiratory rate to about 22per minute
Cardiovascular
System
• Pulse reduces to about 95bpm
• Changes in cardiovascular system allow for an
increased capacity for physical activity
Sleep/Activity
• 12 out of 24hours is spent sleeping
Size
• Increases in weight and height
ITEM
CHARACTERISTICS
Nervous ,
• Brain reaches 90-95% of adult size
Muscular and
• Improved fine-motor and manipulative skills
Skeletal Systems • Well coordinated
• Increase in strength and resistance to fatigue
• Boys tend to be stronger than girls (more muscle
cells)
• Bone-growth is faster than muscle growth leading
to awkwardness in gait and movements
• Reduced activity and growth-rate
Sensory Organs
• Fully developed sensory organs
Cardiovascular
System
• Pulse 85-100bpm and 60-80bpm
• Cardiac growth to meet physical needs
Sleep/Activity
• Requires approximately 10 hours of sleep
Size
• Grows about 2-2½ inches each year
• Gains 5-7pounds each year
ITEM
CHARACTERISTICS
Nervous ,
• Rapid growth of skeletal system
Muscular and
• Growth of trunk
Skeletal Systems • Clumsiness due to growth spurt
• Develops effortlessness in movement as phase
progresses
• Increased muscle-growth and marked physical
activity
Gastrointestinal
System
• Able to digest large quantities of food
• Increased acidity in stomach
• High caloric requirements
Respiratory
System
• Increase in vital capacity
• Boys breath slower than girls on average
Cardiovascular
System
• Pulse is 10% faster in girls than boys
• Blood volume increases more rapidly in boys
Sleep/Activity
• Over-activity
• Fatigue due to lack of sleep and poor nutrition
Size
• Some males continue to grow until aged 20years
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Define Learning
How do people learn motor skills
Stages of Motor Learning
Requirements for learning a motor skill
Nature of motor skill goals
Types of practice
Transfer of learning
Learner characteristics
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Learning is a relatively permanent change in
behaviour resulting from experience, training
and interacting with the biological process
• Learning cannot be directly
observed
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• Learning can be inferred
• Performance is observable
• Sometime students have
learned but are not
performing to what they have
learned
• Sometime students have not
really learned but perform as
though they have learned
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Consistent-Observable
performance of motor
skills determines whether
learning has taken place
Students may be able to
identify a rule on a
written test but may not
be able to apply that rule
when they are actually
playing the game
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Learning can take
place without formal
interventions
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Students can learn
by:
Experimenting
Imitating
Interacting with the
environment
Behaviourist Model
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The external environment is responsible for shaping
the behaviour
The focus is on what the learner does that is
observable
Teachers should model good behaviour
Teacher should reward and positively reinforce
desired behaviour
Content is usually broken down into small parts
More difficult material is added gradually by building
on the
Direct
Information Processing Model
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Focuses on the internal cognitive processing of the
learner
It looks at how learners; select, use, interpret and
store information
Information Processing Theory indicates how
teacher can present information to learners so that
learners;
Pay attention to important ideas
Draw meaning from what they attend to
Integrate what they have learned in useful ways
Direct
1.
Select appropriate cues
2.
Design appropriate feedback
Cognitive Theorists
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More holistic
 They stress:
perspective on
- Problem-solving
learning
- Environmental
Interested in:
approaches and
How people solve
- Interactive models of
problems
teaching
Create
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH
Learn how to learn
Apply what they have
Indirect
learned
 COGNITIVE
–
 ASSOCIATIVE
BEGINNERS UNDERSTAND THE
MOVEMENT CLEARLY
–
IMPROVERS PRACTICE AND
GET A FEEL FOR THE SKILL
 AUTONOMOUS –
EXPERTS PERFORM THE
SKILL AUTOMATICALLY
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BEGINNERS MUST
UNDERSTAND THE
MOVEMENT CLEARLY
Great focus by the
learner on how the skill
is to be performed
Intense concentration
Getting the general idea
of the skill and
sequencing the skill
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Beginners
Must have a clear mental
picture
Thinking takes place –
talking through the skill
Errors will be made often
Difficult to correct actions
The learner needs:
- Clear demonstration
- Simple instructions
- Short periods of practice
- Praise for correct actions
- Pay attention to the
TECHNIQUE not the
outcome
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The technique has been
learned
Focus is on practicing
the skill
Improvement in
performance
Fewer errors are made
Beginning to analyze
movements and make
corrections
Internal and External
Feedback is used
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IMPROVERS
PRACTICE AND
GET A FEEL FOR THE
SKILL
Practice timing
Coordinating the movements
of different parts of the skill
to produce a smooth and
refined action
May attend to different
components of the skill
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EXPERTS PERFORM
THE SKILL
AUTOMATICALLY
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The learner does not
concentrate on the skill
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Techniques are performed
almost automatically
More attention is paid to
making decisions about
strategies and tactics
Technique is applied at
the right time in the right
place
Can detect and deal with
our own errors
Coaches help with the fine
details of the skill, with
tactics and mental
preparation
1.
Reduce the information given
2.
Sequence the pattern
3.
Provide sequenced verbal cues
4.
Present the whole idea
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Focus on…
Timing
Speed
Force
Levels
Directions
Follow-through
Increased complexity
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Focus on what is
important
Provide feedback about
how to improve
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3.
Mastered an easier and related skill
Physical Ability to perform the skill being
taught
Without the prerequisites, practice can only
lead to frustration
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PREREQUISITES
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Clear idea of the task
Motor Programmes
(Memory representation
for a pattern of
movement)
Emphasizes the high
cognitive role of skill
learning
Motivation and Attention
to the skill
Active engagement
Learning must be
meaningful
Practice
-Repetition
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Feedback
- Knowledge of results
Outcome related
- Knowledge of
performance
Execution related
- Received through:
auditory, visual,
kinesthetic, external
information
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Whole or Part
Whole
Whole/Part/Whole
Part/Whole
Massed or
Distributed
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Whole practice for more
rhythmic skills
- Gives the general idea
Part practice for more;
complex or dangerous
skills
Practice once
Spread practice for several
classes
-maintains student
motivation for practice
- Enhances learning
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Fine or Gross
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Simple or Complex
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Fundamental or Specialized
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Continuous, Discrete or Serial
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Self-Paced or Externally paced
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Open or Closed
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Self Paced Skills
dive, golf-swing,
gymnastics, archery.
Object and body at
rest
Body at rest/
object stable
SelfPaced
Target
Archery
Football
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Externally Paced Skills
Receiving a pass,
tennis forehand,
Body in motion/ Body at rest
Body in motion
Object stable
Object in motion Object in motion
Kick-off
Batting
a Ball
Tennis
Forehand
ExternallyPaced
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Open Skills
Regulated by changing events in the environment
The environment changes during a performance
with the addition of: opponents, time constraints,
angle of the shot, speed, distance from the shot
Closed Skills
Stable environmental conditions
Closed
Basketball
Foul Shot
Open
Golf Putt
Tennis
Forehand
Basketball
Jump shot
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Performed
once
Clear
beginning and
end
Start and
finish are not
controlled by
movements
before or after
the
performance
of the skill
Javelin Throw
Discrete
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Different discrete
skills that are
sequenced
together
Fielding and
throwing,
dribbling and
passing
Combine skills
early in the
teaching
progression
Teach students
how to prepare
for the next skill
in the sequence
Serial Skills
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Unclear
beginning
and end
Dribbling,
swimming,
running
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The influence of having learned one skill on the
learning of another
Bilateral Transfer
Practice with one
limb transfers to
the other
Practice with the
dominant limb
first
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Inter-task Transfer
Positive Transfer
It can take less time
to learn a skill
because the first skill
has already been
learned
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Intra-task Transfer
Within the teaching/
learning
progression
Easy to difficult
Simple to complex
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Negative Transfer
Increased difficulty in
learning the new skill
1. Practice must eventually resemble the game situation
2. More practice increases the likelihood of positive transfer into the
game situation
3. Use previous knowledge and ability to facilitate transfer
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Motor Ability
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Ability varies
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Gross body coordination
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Static and dynamic
balance
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Muscle group strength
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Eye/foot coordination
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Influenced by experience
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Genetically set
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Intelligence &
Cognitive Development
No direct relationship
exists between motor
ability and intelligence
Piaget
Children do not think
in the same way that
adults do
Cause and effect
(7-11)
The phase is not
limited by age
Limit the abstract
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Early Childhood
Children
- Elementary Physical Education
Youth
- Secondary School
- Extra-Curricular & Clubs
Young Adult
- University
- Community Recreation
- Fitness Involvement
- Informal participation
Older Adult
- Masters’ Athletes
Physical Activity Forever
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Physical Education is taught by the general
primary school teacher in the primary schools
In some schools the principal takes the initiative
to allow a willing teacher to specialise solely on
the teaching of physical education. Such a
position, however dose not exist.
Principals a free to place these teachers back into
the classroom as regular teachers
The Continuous Assessment Component (CAC) of
the SEA Examination has in recent times
encouraged teachers to teacher fundamental
motor skills to all levels of the primary school
Extramural Programmes
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The term “intramural”
simply means “within the
walls.”
Traditionally, this term
refers to team and
dual/individual activities,
tournaments, meets,
and/or special events
that are limited to
participants and teams
from within a specific
school or institution
Intramural Programmes
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This is a programme
conducted amongst
participants from
different schools
Intermural Programmes
Physical Education
classes within the
school
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The need for motivation
Types of motivation
Factors affecting motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Attribution Theory
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Motivation is the particular attraction that a
students has towards a behaviour or learning
task
It is easier for a teacher to facilitate learning
if students are motivated
Students who persist in a task, spend a long
time on a task or choose to do a task are
motivated
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is defined as performing an
action or behaviour because you enjoy the
activity itself.
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Extrinsic Motivation
Whereas acting on extrinsic motivation is done
for the sake of some external outcome
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a) Personal/social factors
b) Classroom environment
c) Socio economic status
d) Student’s behavior
e) Examination stress
f) Rewards/incentives
g) Self confidence/personality of teacher
We typically attribute
our success or failure
to:
 Our ability
 Our effort
 Luck
 Difficulty of the task
A person’s motivation
is toward a particular
goal occurs because of
1.
2.
the desire to reach
the goal and
The tendency to
avoid failure
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Students cannot address higher needs unless
they have achieved lower needs
Teachers must find ways for students to meet
their needs in positive ways
Students must perceive what is to be learned
as meaningful
Use a variety of teaching strategies
Tasks should allow each student to perform
at their optimal level
Students should be able to function with
autonomy
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Use external forms of motivation with care
Variety in learning activities and interesting
tasks
Help students to understand what it means to
be a beginner
Set realistic goals
Use humour
Identify specifics for improvement
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Rink, J (1998)
- Teaching Physical Education for Learning
- Chapter 2
Siedentop, D (2004)
- Introduction to Physical Education Fitness and
Sport
-Chapters 1-4
Wolff, L et al (1979)
- Fundamentals of Nursing
- Chapter 5
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Course Journal
- Session 2
- Topic of your choice
Report on Journal Article
- Due October 21st
Group Assignment