Section B: Acquiring, developing
and performing movement skills
4. Theories related to the learning of
motor skills
Syllabus
• Description of the S/R bond and application of
related theories
• Associationist theories: operant conditioning
• Cognitive theory: work of the Gestaltists
• Observational learning: the work of Bandura
Stages of motor skill learning
Three stage model
• Fitts and Posner (1967) identified the following
model which has three phases
– Cognitive
– Associative
– Autonomous
• While each of these phases has certain
characteristics associated with it, movement from
one to another is seen to occur on a continuum
Cognitive phase
• This is the first stage of learning experienced by a beginner who
tries to work out and understand what is required to perform a new
movement.
• The novice might watch a demonstration of a skill and then try to
perform the task.
• It is a Short phase during which a trial and error process is used to
help develop an early understanding of the parts of the skill.
• The performer in this phase uses closed-loop control (When
feedback is used to adjust performance) and relies heavily on
feedback (Information received to help modify performance)
• The coach might use manual and mechanical guidance and
concentrate on extrinsic and positive feedback to offer
encouragement and ensure improvement
Cognitive phase
• Used for beginners
• The beginner is trying to get to grips with the basics
while dealing with lots of visual, verbal and
kinaesthetic information in the form of
– Demonstrations (visual guidance)
– Instructions (verbal guidance)
– Initial trials/practice in the form of basic trial and error
(kinaesthetic picture)
• Emphasis is very much on early understanding or
cognitive involvement (internalising information) ,
allowing a mental picture to be created so that initial
plans of action can be formulated
Problems linked to the cognitive phase
• Selective attention – what should I pay attention
to
• Information overload
• Gross errors (uncoordinated movements)
Teaching/guidance needs to be clear, simple and
concise.
Demonstrations are probably more effective and
the coach may even need to manipulate the
leaner’s limbs.
Associative phase
• This is often called the practice phase of learning.
• The learner compares his/her current level of performance with
that of a top level player.
• Trial and error may again be used to achieve a smoother
performance and fine tune any errors.
• The feedback during the trial and error process may be internal as
the player may now have more of an idea of the perfect movement.
• During this phase the player begins to build up a mental framework
of the task, with the parts of the skill – its subroutines – coded in
the memory.
• This framework is called a MOTOR PROGRAMME.
• The player should now be able to use intrinsic feedback and begin
to alter the level of skill, using negative feedback. Verbal and visual
guidance could be used.
Associative phase
• The learning process is generally longer than the cognitive phase, with the
learner taking part in many hours of practice
• The characteristics are:
– Fundamental basics have been mastered and are becoming more consistent
– Mental or early cognitive images of the skill have been associated with the
relevant movements, enabling the coordination of the various parts of the skill
to become smoother
– Motor programmes are being developed
– Gross error detection and correction are being practised
– Skill are practised and refined under a variety of conditions
– There is a gradual change to more subtle and detailed cue utilisation
– More detailed feedback is given and used
– There is greater use of internal/kinaesthetic feedback
• There is an obvious change to the performance characteristics even
though the skills are not yet automatic or consistently correct.
Autonomous phase
• At this stage movements are perfected to the point where they are
almost automatic.
• The player can concentrate on the finer details of the task and the
performance is completed with maximum efficiency.
• This is a phase for experts, who must continue to practice if they
want to remain at this top level.
• Motor programs are firmly stored in the memory.
• At this level of performance the player could benefit from both
intrinsic and extrinsic feedback.
• To remain in the autonomous phase, regular reference back to the
associative phase is essential, even for highly skilled professionals,
in order to reinforce motor programmes
• After much practice and variety of experience, one moves into the
autonomous phase
Autonomous phase
• The characteristics are as follows:
– Performance of skill is almost automatic
– Skill is performed easily and without stress
– The performance is consistent with highly skilled movement
characteristics
– Skills can be adapted to meet different situations
– It is habitual allowing focus to be on other aspects of the game
• The performer is able to:
– Process information easily, helping decision making
– Concentrate on the relevant cues and signals from the environment
– Concentrate on additional higher-level strategies, tactics and options
available
– Detect and correct errors without help
Autonomous phase
• Learning is still not over in this phase
• Small improvements can still be made in
terms of style and form and also psychological
aspects
– Self-evaluation
– Mental practice
– Stress management
– Personal motivation
The stimulus-response bond
• The relationship between a stimulus and the
specific action that it initiates
• These bonds form the basis of the
associationist theories of learning
• For example, when a badminton player sees
their opponent at the rear of the court
(stimulus) they may be conditioned to play
their shot to the front (response)
The stimulus-response compatibility
• The degree to which the response to a given
stimulus appears natural
• If a performer is presented with a situation in
which they have been before and know how
to react, their reaction time will be reduced
Operant conditioning
•
•
•
Is a major connectionist theory
Concerned with changing the response in a given situation
Skinner (rats) and Pavlov (dogs)
To understand how it relates to PE, four points need to be remembered and applied to
a practical situation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
It is necessary to structure a situation to bring about a desired response. This
involved arranging the practice environment so it is a copy of the game situation.
This structure allows ‘behaviour shaping’ to take place. Behaviour shaping
enables complex forms of behaviour to be learned in parts or small steps.
Performance will take the form of trial and error. This means the player will
attempt the structured practice. Sometimes the wrong response will emerge but
at other times the response will be correct.
Apply reinforcement to the response made by the player.
Pavlov’s experiment
Why should you avoid using
punishment?
• The predominant use of punishment normally works by creating a
fear of failure, and this can often lead to performance decrements
as athletes focus on the consequences of losing or making mistakes
rather than on what needs to be done to be successful. Fear of
failure can promote indecision, with consequent tentative
responses and a tendency to choke in high-pressure situations. In
hockey, for example, a winger needs to take risks by running at the
full backs and committing his opponents; this will not always be
successful but it only has to work once for a match- winning goal to
occur. However, if the player fears a backlash from his coach if he
loses the ball, he might become tentative and avoid responsibility
by passing to a team mate. ‘Playing it safe’ is often a
counterproductive tactic which has been linked to poorer
performances. Fear of failure has also been linked to less enjoyable
experiences in sport and increased drop-out rates.
Why should you avoid using
punishment?
• If you are working with athletes who are
attention seekers, making an example of them by
punishing them in front of others can actually
reinforce the behaviour you want to eliminate.
Poor behaviour, such as constantly turning up late
for practice, is sometimes designed to provoke a
response. The best way to deal with such
behaviour is on a one-to-one basis in a private
setting; otherwise it is likely to recur as it gives
the attention seeker exactly what he craves.
Why should you avoid using
punishment?
• The predominant use of punishment as an
approach to coaching doesn’t promote good
relations between coach and athlete. It can
lead to the build-up of hostility, resentment
and discouragement, resulting in loss of
motivation.
Cognitive learning theory
• The major cognitive learning theory is the Gestalt Theory
• The Gestalt theorists believe that skills are best presented
to the learner as a whole problem. The learner will solve
the problem by drawing on previous experience and by
developing a perception of what is required.
• The whole is greater than the sum of its parts
• The learner must be motivated and have a positive self
image in order to reach a solution. When it is reached,
insight is developed and this marks a permanent stage in
learning.
• Insight learning – a learner is suddenly discovers the
relationship between the many stimuli they have been
faced with and “it all comes together”
Cognitive learning theory
• It is important that further goals or problems are set in order to
motivate the learner to develop their performance further
• The association of S-R by trial-and-error learning has NO role to play
in the cognitive perspective
• What is learned within insight learning is therefore not a set of
specific conditioned associations, but a real understanding of the
relationship between the process and the means of achieving the
end result
• This whole learning approach allows learners to develop their own
strategies and routes of understanding alongside general principles,
thus enabling the quicker learners to progress at their own rate: this
has obvious link to the promoting of motivation and the
development of an individual’s full potential
The main differences between Connectionist
Theories and Cognitive Learning Theory are as
follows:• Connectionist – skills are best delivered in parts.
The development of the learning bond by
connecting the stimulus with the response
explains how we learn.
• Cognitive – skills are best delivered as a whole.
The development of insight occurring when the
whole problem is solved explains how we learn.
Example of:
An example of the cognitive theory at work could be related to
swimming.
• Gestalt theorists would argue that stroke action is best taught as a
whole and at no time should leg and arm action be practiced in
isolation.
• This gives opportunity to the individual to “work out” the most
effective action for himself.
• However, for the non swimmer, buoyancy aids would need to be
used.
• This is a form of mechanical guidance and would serve to simplify
the whole task.
• Gestalt theorists believe part learning to be inefficient because it
does not present all the information necessary for the learner to
develop total understanding or insight.
Observational learning (social learning)
• Observational learning is a form of visual guidance usually
associated with demonstration. The aim of a demonstration
is to present the learner with a visual model which can be
copied and matched.
• Learning by imitation is a very powerful principle being
both time saving and more interesting than a lengthy verbal
explanation.
• Demonstrations are important at all stages of learning.
During the cognitive stage the novice will be able to grasp
the general idea of what is required and be motivated by
the exhibition. At the autonomous stage a demonstration is
useful in highlighting detailed and specific points in
performance.
Observational learning
•
Learning by demonstration is not a fail – safe method. A psychologist named
Bandura indicates that observational learning takes place only if the learner can
put four elements into place.
•
Attention: the learner must focus directly on the model. The teacher can use
verbal guidance to hold the attention of the learner. The model of performance
must be brief, attractive and meaningful.
Retention: the image of the demonstration must be stored or retained by the
learner if it is to be copied successfully. Verbal guidance will prevent information
overload and help hold the picture in the short term memory, but the
demonstration should be repeated several times as insurance. The observer
should be encouraged to picture the image in the mind’s eye. This process is called
mental rehearsal. A good teaching technique to aid retention is to connect a
second image to the demonstration. This technique is called symbolic rehearsal.
Motor reproduction: the learner must have the maturation, confidence and
physical ability to copy or replicate the skill being modelled.
Motivation: a key element in learning and performance is motivation. In order to
reproduce the model the observer must have the drive or motivation to learn
•
•
•
Observation of
demonstration
Information
processing
STAGE 1:
Attention
Information
processing
depends on level of
respect and
attractiveness
STAGE 2:
Retention
Information
processing
mental and
symbolic rehearsal
STAGE 3: Motor
reproduction
Sporting
performance
appropriate to the
capability level of
the learner
STAGE 4:
Motivation
Sporting
performance
depends on
reinforcement,
status of the model
and importance of
the task
Actual modelled
performance is
produced
Sporting
performance
• Learning is seen as taking place within a social
setting in the presence of others, with the learner
and the socialising agent involved in a two-way
interaction.
• The behaviour is observed, the consequences are
assimilated and the behaviour is then copied in
the appropriate situation at the appropriate time.
• Teachers and coaches often hope that the
consequences of disciplining a certain team
member for unacceptable behaviour will not only
have an effect on the specific player, but will also
affect the behaviour of other team members who
are watching.
The degree of effect or endurance of observational
behaviour will depend on several factors:
• Appropriateness - if perceived to be appropriate it
increases the probability of imitation
• Relevance - young males are more likely to imitate
male models of aggression than girls
• Similarity - as young as 3 yrs and you are already
beginning to recognise ‘gender roles’
• Reinforcement - behaviour that’s rewarded will
increase likelihood of repetition
• Powerful - the more powerful the model, the more
significant the effect is perceived to be
Practical application of Bandura’s
model
In order to make demonstrations more effective, a teacher
or coach should:
• Make sure the learner is aware of the importance and
relevance of the skill to the final performance
• Refer to a high-status model
• Show complex skills from various angles and at different
speeds
• Focus attention on a few points
• Allow time for mental rehearsal
• Repeat the demonstration if necessary
• Reinforce successful performance