FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING THEORY AND ANALYSIS: TEXT AND CASES 11TH EDITION RICHARD G. SCHROEDER MYRTLE W. CLARK JACK M. CATHEY Chapter 2 The Pursuit of the Conceptual Framework Introduction What is the conceptual framework? An attempt by the FASB to develop concepts useful in guiding the Board in establishing standards and in providing a frame of reference for resolving accounting issues The Early Theorists Paton All changes in the value of assets and liabilities should be reflected in the financial statements, and that such changes should be measured on a current value basis. Also, basic assumptions or postulates underlying the accounting process Canning Suggested a framework for asset valuations and measurement based on future expectations as well as a model to match revenues and expenses. Introduction DR Scott and his conceptual framework Was viewed as an outsider; however, his writings have proven to be quite insightful. Heavily influenced by the views of his colleague, the economist and philosopher Thorstein Veblen. Believed the industrial revolution caused managers to look for new methods of maintaining organizational control. As a result, scientific methods such as accounting and statistics became organizational control tools. Need for a normative theory of accounting The Basis for Accounting Principles Orientation Postulate Accounting is based on a broad consideration of the current social, political, and economic environment. The Pervasive Principle of Justice The second level in Scott’s conceptual framework was justice, which was seen as developing accounting rules that offer equitable treatment to all users of financial statements. The Principles of Truth and Fairness Truth was seen as an accurate portrayal of the information presented. Fairness was viewed as containing the attributes of objectivity, freedom from bias, and impartiality. The Principles of Adaptability and Consistency Adaptability was viewed as necessary because society and economic conditions change; consequently, accounting must also change. However, need to balance adaptability with consistency by stating that accounting rules should not be changed to serve the temporary purposes of management. Ahead of his time Early Authoritative and Semi-authoritative Organizational Attempts to Develop the Conceptual Framework of Accounting Goal was to provide guidance to the SEC. Widely criticized by academics as relying too heavily on the historic cost model and the convention of conservatism. Highlighted the distinction between the current operating performance and all-inclusive concepts of income. Early Authoritative and Semi-authoritative Organizational Attempts to Develop the Conceptual Framework of Accounting Goal was to provide guidance to the SEC on the best accounting practices Study did not accomplish its objective because it was viewed as a defense of accepted practices rather than an attempt to develop a theory of accounting Early Authoritative and Semi-authoritative Organizational Attempts to Develop the Conceptual Framework of Accounting AAA benchmark study by Paton and A. C. Littleton. Continued to embrace the use of historical cost. Major contribution was the further articulation of the entity theory. Also described the matching concept. Later cited as developing a theory that has been used in many subsequent authoritative pronouncements The CAP and the Conceptual Framework Standard-setting bodies initially reluctant to deal with the issue of accounting theory. At its inception, the Committee on Accounting Procedure (CAP) had considered developing a comprehensive set of accounting principles. Dropped the idea because of the belief that the SEC might not be patient enough to allow the CAP enough time to develop the project and, as a consequence, might decide to develop its own accounting standards. The CAP and the Conceptual Framework The Special Committee on Research Programs established to review and make recommendations on the AICPA’s role in establishing accounting principles. Proposed the establishment of the Accounting Principles Board (APB) to replace the CAP. Also proposed the establishment of a research division to assist the APB. The APB and the Conceptual Framework Committee’s first charge to the APB’s research division was to commission studies on the postulates and principles that would serve as the foundation for future authoritative pronouncements. This can be viewed as the first real attempt to establish a conceptual framework of accounting by an authoritative body. The AICPA accepted the committee’s recommendations and in 1959, the APB replaced the CAP. Postulates study Research study ARS No. 1 (1961) The Basic Postulates of Accounting Hierarchy of postulates Group A: Economic and Political Based on the economic and political environment in which accounting exists. Represent descriptions of those aspects of the environment were presumed to be relevant for accounting Group B: Accounting Focuses on the field of accounting. Designed to act as a foundation and assist in constructing accounting principles. Group C: Imperatives Differs fundamentally from the first two groups. Not primarily descriptive statements; instead, they represent a set of normative statements of what should be rather than statements of what is. Disastrous outcome Early Authoritative and Semi-authoritative Organizational Attempts to Develop the Conceptual Framework of Accounting ARS No. 3 1962 Use of current values Departure from SEC’s advocacy of historical cost APB Statement No. 4 Definition of accounting Sophistication of users Description of current practice Not GAAP ASOBAT 1966 Information system involving communication Economic income Decision Usefulness Standards for evaluating: relevance, verifiability, freedom from bias, quantifiability The Trueblood Committee 1. Who needs financial statements? 2. What information do they need? 3. How much of the needed information can be provided by accountants? 4. What framework is needed to provide the needed information? The Trueblood Committee 1. 2. 3. 4. Committee report specified the following four information needs of users: Making decisions concerning the use of limited resources Effectively directing and controlling organizations Maintaining and reporting on the custodianship of resources Facilitating social functions and controls Objectives of financial reporting Difficulty in finding agreement and therefore answers Viewed as first step Statement on Accounting Theory and Theory Acceptance Rationale for the committee’s approach The approaches to accounting theory were condensed into 1. 2. Fundamental changes since ASOBAT No one theory exists Classical-deductive and disconnected Decision Usefulness-usefulness is a basic objective 3. Information Economics- specify information necessary to make economic decisions Criticisms of the approaches to theory Statement on Accounting Theory and Theory Acceptance Committee suggested that the process of theorizing in accounting was more revolutionary than evolutionary and turned to a perspective developed by Kuhn. He suggests scientific progress proceeds in the following order: 1. Acceptance of a paradigm 2. Working with that paradigm by doing normal science 3. Becoming dissatisfied with that paradigm 4. Searching for a new paradigm 5. Accepting a new paradigm SATTA suggested that accounting theory at that time was in step 3 of this process because a number of theorists had become dissatisfied with the matching approach to specifying the content of financial reports. The FASB’s Conceptual Framework Project The objectives identify the goals and purposes of financial accounting; whereas, the fundamentals are the underlying concepts that help achieve those objectives. These concepts are designed to provide guidance in: 1. 2. 3. Selecting the transactions, events and circumstances to be accounted for Determining how the selected transactions, events, and transactions should be measured Determining how to summarize and report the results of events, transactions and circumstances. The Conceptual Framework The FASB originally developed six SFACs In 2010 SFAC No’s 1 & 2 were replaced by SFAC No. 8 Figure 2.1 provides an overview of the FASB's conceptual framework for financial accounting and reporting. The Conceptual Framework for Financial Accounting and Reporting OBJECTIVE SFAC No. 8 OBJECTIVES ELEMENTS QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS SFAC No. 6 FUNDAMENTALS Revenue Expense Gain Loss Asset Liability Equity SFAC No’s. 5 & 8 Relevance Faithful Representation RECOGNITION, MEASUREMENT AND DISCLOSURE CONCEPTS IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES ASSUMPTIONS Economic Entity Going Concern Monetary Unit Periodicity PRINCIPLES Measurement Revenue Recognition Expense Recognition Full Disclosure CONSTRAINTS Cost Industry Practices Conceptual Framework Level 3: identifies the implementation guidelines of recognition, measurement, and disclosure used in establishing and applying accounting standards and the specific concepts to put into practice the objective. These guidelines include the assumptions, principles, and constraints that describe the present reporting environment. Level 2: outlines the fundamentals which are the qualitative characteristics that make accounting information useful and the elements of financial statements (assets, liabilities, etc.) Level 1: identifies the objective of financial reporting—that is, the purpose of financial reporting. Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 8 Chapter 1 Objective of general‐purpose financial reporting Provide financial information about the reporting entity that is useful to present and potential equity investors, lenders, and other creditors in making decisions about providing resources to the entity. Decisions involve buying, selling, or holding equity and debt instruments, and providing or settling loans and other forms of credit. Information that is decision‐useful to capital providers may also be useful to other users of financial reporting, who are not capital providers. Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 8 Criticism Young criticized FASB’s viewpoint that financial statement users are “rational decision-makers” Other types of information that might be useful to other groups are omitted Accounting standard-setters fail to contact actual users of information Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 8 Chapter 1 The objective of financial reporting is foundation of the conceptual framework. Other aspects of the framework—qualitative characteristics, elements of financial statements, recognition, measurement, and disclosure—flow logically from the objective. Those aspects of the framework help to ensure that financial reporting achieves its objective. Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 8 Chapter 1 The second level of the CFP contains the fundamental concepts. Provide Conceptual building blocks Include the qualitative characteristics of accounting information and the elements of financial statements. Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 8 Chapter 3 Identifies the qualitative characteristics of accounting information that distinguish better (more useful) information from inferior (less useful) information for decision‐making purposes. These characteristics may be viewed as a hierarchy Capital Providers (Investors and Creditors) and their characteristics Primary Users of Accounting Information Pervasive Constraint Fundamental qualities Ingredients of Fundamental qualities Cost Relevance Predictive value Faithful Representation Materiality Confirmatory value Enhancing qualities Comparability Verifiability Completeness Free from error Neutrality Timeliness Understandability Primary Users of Financial Information Existing or potential investors, lenders and other creditors Its capital providers SFAS No. 8: Cost Constraint Cost is described as a pervasive constraint on the information that can be provided by financial reporting. The measurement, summarization, and reporting of financial information imposes costs, and it is important that those costs are justified by the benefits of reporting that information. SFAS No. 8: Cost Constraint This type of analysis is made on several levels. Companies must decide whether the benefits of providing financial information outweigh the costs involved in collecting, processing, verifying, and disseminating that information. Users of financial information must decide whether the benefits of analyzing and interpreting the information provided outweigh their costs. Regulators must assess whether the benefits of reporting particular information are likely to justify the costs incurred to provide and use that information. This is termed cost-benefit analysis SFAS No. 8: Qualitative Characteristics Distinguishing between better (more useful) information from inferior (less useful) information. These qualitative characteristics Either fundamental or enhancing characteristics Depending on how they affect the decision‐usefulness of information. The two fundamental qualities that make accounting information useful for decision‐making 1. relevance and 2. faithful representation. SFAS No. 8: Relevance Relevant financial information is capable of making a difference in the decisions made by users. Financial information is capable of making a difference in decisions if it has: Predictive value: it can be used as an input to processes employed by users to predict future outcomes. Confirmatory value: it provides feedback (confirms or changes) about previous evaluations. Materiality: if omitting it or misstating it could influence decisions that users make on the basis of the financial information of a specific reporting entity. SFAS No. 8: Faithful Representation Financial reports represent economic phenomena in words and numbers. To be useful, financial information Must represent relevant phenomena Must faithfully represent the phenomena that it purports to represent. A perfectly faithful representation has three characteristics: 1. 2. 3. Completeness Neutrality Free from error. SFAS No. 8: Faithful Representation A complete depiction should include all information necessary for a user to understand the phenomenon being depicted. A neutral depiction Without bias in the selection or presentation of financial information. Not slanted, weighted, emphasized, deemphasized, or otherwise manipulated to increase the probability that financial information will be received favorably or unfavorably by users. Free from error There are no errors or omissions in the description of the phenomenon Process used to produce the reported information has been selected and applied with no errors in the process. Information that is free from error will result in a more faithful representation of financial results. SFAS No. 8: Enhancing Qualities Qualitative characteristics enhance the usefulness of information that is relevant and faithfully represented. Comparability is the qualitative characteristic that enables users to identify and understand similarities in, and differences among, items. Verifiability helps assure users that information faithfully represents the economic phenomena it purports to represent. Different knowledgeable and independent observers could reach consensus, although not necessarily complete agreement A particular depiction is a faithful representation. Timeliness means having information available to decision makers in time to be capable of influencing their decisions. Understandability involves classifying, characterizing, and presenting information clearly and concisely. Additional Phases Three additional phases of the CPF are currently inactive 1. 2. 3. The reporting entity Measurement Elements and recognition phases. The FASB has determined that because of the priority placed on other projects, it cannot devote the time necessary to properly address those issues in the near future. May, 2012: The IASB announced that it will resume deliberations on the CFP as an IASB-run project, that is, no longer a joint project with the FASB. No. 5 “Recognition and Measurement in Financial Statements of Business Enterprises” Sets forth recognition criteria and guidance on what information should be incorporated into financial statements and when this information should be reported Defined comprehensive income as: Revenues Less: Expenses Plus: Gains Less: Losses = Earnings Earnings Plus or minus cumulative accounting adjustments Plus or minus other non-owner changes in equity = Comprehensive Income No. 5 “Recognition and Measurement in Financial Statements of Business Enterprises” Measurement Issues 1. Definitions. 2. The item meets the definition of an element contained in SFAC No. 6. Measurability. 3. It has a relevant attribute measurable with sufficient reliability. Relevance. 4. The information about the item is capable of making a difference in user decisions. Reliability. The information is representationally faithful, verifiable, and neutral. SFAC No. 5 Gaps Failure to define “earnings” No resolution on debate of current value vs historical cost No. 6 “The Elements of Financial Statements” Defines the ten elements of financial statements that are used to measure the performance and position of economic entities These elements are discussed in more depth in Chapters 5 and 6. SFAC No. 7 “Using Cash Flow Information and Present Value in Accounting Measurements” Accounting measurement is a very broad topic. Consequently, the FASB focused on a series of questions relevant to measurement and amortization conventions that employ present value techniques. Among these questions are: What are the objectives of using present value in the initial recognition of assets and liabilities? And, do these objectives differ in subsequent fresh-start measurements of assets and liabilities? Does the measurement of liabilities at present value differ from the measurement of assets? How should the estimates of cash flows and interest rates be developed? What are the objectives of present value when used in conjunction with the amortization of assets and liabilities? How should present value amortizations be used when the estimates of cash flows change? SFAC No. 7 “Using Cash Flow Information and Present Value in Accounting Measurements” Purpose is to capture economic difference between sets of future cash flows. Present value measurements that fully captures the economic differences between assets should include the following elements: 1. An estimate of the future cash flows 2. Expectations about variations in the timing of those cash flows 3. The time value of money represented by the riskfree rate of interest 4. The price for bearing the uncertainty 5. Other, sometimes unidentifiable, factors including illiquidity and market imperfections SFAC No. 7 “Using Cash Flow Information and Present Value in Accounting Measurements” Approaches to present value 1. 2. Traditional-Single cash flow single interest rate Expected cash flow range Incorporating probabilities The objective is to estimate the value of the assets required currently to settle the liability with the holder or transfer the liability to an entity with a comparable credit standing Use of the interest method Principles Based vs. Rules Based Accounting Standards Continuum ranging from highly rigid standards on one end to general definitions of economics-based concepts on the other end. Example: Goodwill Previous practice: Goodwill is to be amortized over a 40 life until it is fully amortized. New FASB rule: Goodwill is not amortized. Any recorded goodwill is to be tested for impairment and written down to its current fair value on an annual basis. Principles-Based Better able to cope with speed of change of business environment Less Voluminous Encourages use of professional judgment with focus on what is right Seen as possibly discouraging financial engineering Rules-Based More workable in large, complex economies & countries Less room for interpretation Provides more guidance for practical implementation Less need for explanation in financial statements FASB Questions 1. Do you support the Board’s proposal for a principles-based approach to U. S. standard setting? Will that approach improve the quality and transparency of U. S. financial accounting and reporting? 2. Should the Board develop an overall reporting framework as in IAS 1? If so, should that framework include a true and fair override? 3. Under what circumstances should interpretive and implementation guidance be provided under a principles-based approach to U.S. standard setting? Should the Board be the primary standard setter responsible for providing that guidance? 4. Will preparers, auditors, the SEC, investors, creditors, and other users of financial information be able to adjust to a principles-based approach to U.S. standard setting? If not, what needs to be done and by whom? 5. 6. What other factors should the Board consider in assessing the extent to which it should adopt a principles-based approach to U.S. standard setting? What are the benefits and costs (including transition costs) of adopting a principlesbased approach to U.S. standard setting? How might those benefits and costs be quantified? Principles Based vs. Rules Based Accounting Standards The AAA’s position Wrong question Economic substance, not form Dissenting opinion US standards also include rules-based elements Further developments 2003 SEC study submitted to Congress Included recommendations to FASB 2004 FASB response to recommendations 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Issuing Objectives-Oriented Standards Conceptual Framework One U.S. Standard Setter GAAP Hierarchy Access to Authoritative Literature Comprehensive Review of Literature International Convergence Norwalk Agreement September 18, 2002 FASB & IASB pledged Achieve compatibility Maintain compatibility 3 Major aspects: 1. Financial Statements Presentation Project 2. Conceptual Framework Project 3. Standards Update Project FASB-IASB Financial Statement Presentation Project Establish common standard Goals Understand past and present financial position Understand changes and causes of changes Evaluate future cash flows FASB-IASB Financial Statement Presentation Project 3 Phases A. What constitutes complete set of statements? B. Fundamental issues for presentation of information C. Presentation of interim financial information in U.S. GAAP Further Developments February 2006 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) Shared objective: develop high-quality, common accounting standards “Road map” for elimination of reconciliation requirements Develop new common standards rather than eliminate differences Convergence 1. Boards to reach conclusion on major differences in focused areas • 2008 goal 2. FASB & IASB seek to make continued progress in other areas November 2009 Progress Report Milestone targets for each project Commitment to reporting quarterly on progress Make reports available on web Host monthly joint board meetings FASB & IFRS Statements 4 New SFASs SFAS No. 151 (Superseded) SFAS No. 153 (Superseded) SFAS No. 154 SFAS No. 163 SFAS No. 141 revised IASB new standards on borrowing costs & segment reporting Phase B principles Financial statement presentation 1. Cohesive financial picture 2. Financing activities separated 3. Liquidity of assets & liabilities 4. Disaggregate line items 5. Understand Measurement of assets & liabilities Uncertainty & subjectivity Causes of changes in assets & liabilities Financial Statements Comprehensive Income Financial Position Cash Flows Each statement to contain 2 primary section: 1. Business Operating Investing 2. Financing Debt Equity Conceptual Framework Project 8 phases 1. Objectives and qualitative characteristics 2. Definitions of elements, recognition and derecognition 3. Measurement 4. Reporting entity concept 5. Boundaries of financial reporting, and presentation and disclosure 6. Purpose and status of framework 7. Application of framework to not-for-profit entities 8. Remaining issues, if any End of Chapter 2 Prepared by Kathryn Yarbrough, MBA Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted in Section 117 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the express written consent of the copyright owner is unlawful. 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