Tacit Knowledge And The West Midlands Police
How Effective Are West Midlands Police At
Utilising The Tacit Knowledge Of Response
Policing Officers?
Author: Allan Green
Submitted for: The MA in Managing And Leading People
M45 HRM
Faculty of Business, Environment and Society
Coventry Business School
August 2014
Tutor: Stephen Clapcott
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Tacit Knowledge And The West Midlands Police
Statement Of Authorship
I certify that this dissertation is my own work and contains no material, which has
been accepted for the award of any degree or diploma, in any institute, college or
university. Moreover, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no
material previously published or written by another person, except where due
reference is made in the text of the dissertation. I also understand that under no
circumstances should any part of this dissertation be published, including on the
internet, or publicly displayed without receiving written permission from the
school.
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Tacit Knowledge And The West Midlands Police
Executive Summary
This paper seeks to establish how effective West Midlands Police (WMP) are at
using the tacit knowledge of those officers whose role it is to respond to
emergency calls from the public. It identifies the most significant factors that both
promote and prevent the successful transfer of knowledge between the employee
and employer.
It is produced at a time when public services face significant reductions in budgets
and resources. As all services seek to modernise their industry, improvements
in business efficiency are essential. Effective knowledge management strategies
are now recognised as a vital source of competitive advantage, but there is little
understanding of how it is created and managed (Nonaka, Toyama and Konno,
2000:6).
There is very little empirical data on how large metropolitan police forces such as
WMP recognise and utilise the tacit knowledge of staff, but more specifically frontline emergency response policing teams. This paper aims to fill that gap and in
doing so highlights further research opportunities.
Creating a culture where openness, honesty, mutual trust and ethical behaviour
are prevalent is a critical factor in both the promotion and prevention of successful
knowledge transfer systems. The findings from this paper support that assertion.
This paper also critically evaluates the importance of the ‘psychological contract’
and organisational structure on knowledge management.
The author has conducted nine semi-structured interviews and received forty-four
completed questionnaires, from a range of staff across five of the ten policing
areas in WMP. It was essential to triangulate the research data because by its
very nature, tacit knowledge is subjective and difficult to measure.
It is clear from the findings of this paper that emergency response policing officers
believe that their first and second line managers utilise their personal tacit
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Tacit Knowledge And The West Midlands Police
knowledge, but do not believe that WMP generally adhere to the same
philosophy.
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Tacit Knowledge And The West Midlands Police
Acknowledgements
The author would like to begin by thanking his amazing wife, Mel and three
children Harriett and twins, Elisa and Henry. Sadly, Harriett Green was born
sleeping on the 31st March 2013. Harriett sacrificed herself to allow for the birth
of Elisa and Henry on the 11th April 2014. Harriett, you may have only been with
us for a short time but you will live in our hearts forever. Mel you are simply
amazing and without your love, support and patience this would never have
happened.
Secondly, Stephen Clapcott and Michael McFadden from Coventry University
could not have been more supportive and helpful. Your expert guidance has
made a daunting task achievable and actually very fulfilling in what has been a
very tumultuous couple of years. Thank you.
Finally, the author would like to thank all the people from West Midlands Police
who took the time and effort to share their thoughts and opinions.
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Contents
1. Introduction………………………………………………….…..…………… 9
1.1 Aims and Objectives………………………………….…………………. 9
1.2 Justification For Research Topic………………………………………... 9
2. Literature Review……………………………………………………………. 13
2.1 Factors That Promote Staff to Staff to Share Knowledge………...…. 15
2.1.1 The Intelligent Organisation……………………………………….15
2.1.2 Exploitation and Exploration Capability…………………………. 15
2.1.3 Organisational Structure………………………………………….. 16
2.1.4 Organisational Culture……………………………………………. 17
2.1.5 The Psychological Contract……………………………….……… 19
2.1.6 The Human Factors……………………………………………….. 20
2.2 Factors That Discourage Staff From Sharing Knowledge…………… 21
2.2.1 Stickiness of Knowledge………………………………………….. 21
2.2.2 The Role of Information Technology…………………………….. 21
2.2.3 Power Distance, Policies and Procedures……………………… 22
3. Methodology………………………………………………………………….. 24
3.1 The Three Social Research Paradigms………………………………... 25
3.1.1 The History…………………………………………………………. 25
3.1.2 Positivism……………………………………………………………26
3.1.3 Interpretivism………………………………………………………. 26
3.2 The Triangulation Debate ……………………………………………….. 27
3.2.1 Disadvantages of Triangulation………………………………….. 28
3.2.2 Advantages of Triangulation………………………….………….. 29
3.3 The Four Research Techniques………………………………………… 31
3.3.1 Questionnaires ……………………………………………………. 32
3.3.1.1 Advantages………………………………………………. 32
3.3.1.2 Disadvantages…………………………………………… 33
3.3.2 Interviews ………………………………………………………….. 34
3.3.2.1 Advantages………………………………………………. 34
3.3.2.2 Disadvantages…………………………………………… 36
3.3.3 Observation………………………………………………………… 37
3.3.3.1 Advantages………………………………………………. 37
3.3.3.2 Disadvantages…………………………………………… 37
3.3.4 Documents…………………………………………………………. 38
3.3.4.1 Advantages………………………………………………. 38
3.3.4.2 Disadvantages…………………………………………… 39
3.4 Project Methodology……………………………………………………… 40
3.5 A Discussion on the Sample…………………………………………….. 42
4. Findings, Critical Analysis and Discussion…………………………….. 44
4.1 Questionnaire Findings…………………………………………………... 45
4.2 To What Extent Do Response Officers Feel That Their Own
Knowledge (tacit) is Used By WMP?.................................................. 53
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4.2.1 Recognising the Importance of Tacit Knowledge……………… 53
4.2.2 Range of Methods Employed To Gather Information…………. 55
4.2.2.1 Information Technology………………………………… 53
4.2.3 Supervisors Utilising Staff Knowledge…………………………... 54
4.2.4 Are Suggestions/Ideas Listened To?…..……………………….. 54
4.2.5 Summary…………………………………………………………… 55
4.3 The Factors that Promote Staff to Share Their Knowledge………….. 56
4.3.1 Organisational Culture……………………………………………. 56
4.3.2 The Psychological Contract………………………………………. 57
4.3.3 Summary…………………………………………………………… 58
4.4 The Factors That Discourage Staff from Sharing their Knowledge…. 58
4.4.1 The Stickiness of Knowledge…………………………………….. 58
4.4.2 Sharing of Knowledge…………………………………………….. 58
4.4.3 Four Main Barriers………………………………………………… 59
4.4.3.1 Poor IT Systems………………………………………….59
4.4.3.2 Information Technology………………………………….59
4.4.3.2 Ideas Not Listened To………………………………….. 60
4.4.3.3 Time and Resources……………………………………. 61
4.4.4 Formalised Rules and Procedures………………………………. 61
5. Conclusions and Recommendations…………………...……………….. 63
5.1 Conclusions
5.1.1 Extent that Response Officers Feel They are Listened To…… 64
5.1.2 Factors that Promote Staff To Share Their Knowledge……….. 65
5.1.3 Factors that Discourage Staff To Share Their Knowledge……. 66
5.2 Practical Recommendations…………………………………………….. 68
5.2.1 Information Technology…………………………………………… 68
5.2.2 Training and Development……………………………………….. 69
5.2.3 Communications Strategy………………………………………… 69
5.3 Limitations of this Research……………………………………………... 70
5.4 Future Research Opportunites………………………………………….. 71
6. Appendix……………………………………………………...………………. 73
6.1 The Questionnaire………………………………………………………... 74
6.2 The Interview Questions…………………………………………………. 75
6.3 The Participant Information Sheet………………………………………. 79
7. References…………….……………………………………….....………….. 82
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List of Tables and Figures
5. Findings, Critical Analysis and Discussion
Table 1 - The results chart for question number 1: The importance of
tacit knowledge……………………………………………….. 45
Table 2 - The results chart for question number 2: The range of
methods employed to extract knowledge…………………... 45
Table 3 - The results chart for question number 3: Does your
supervisor use your knowledge?.……………………………46
Table 4 - The results chart for question number 4: Are you given the
time and space to transfer knowledge?..……………………46
Table 5 - The results chart for question number 5: Is good work
rewarded?………………………………….....………………. 47
Table 6 - The results chart for question number 6: Is your
working environment based on openness?…..…………….47
Table 7 - The results chart for question number 7: Is your working
environment based on trust/fairness?...…………………….. 48
Table 8 - The results chart for question number 8: How effective are
WMP at translating your information?………………………. 48
Table 9 - The results chart for question number 9: Extent that different
departments share knowledge?...……………………….….. 49
Table 10 - The results chart for question number 10: Are you
encouraged to share your knowledge?..………………..... 49
Table 11 - The results chart for question number 11: Encouraged to
share knowledge outside of your team....………………... 50
Table 12 - The results chart for question number 12: Do WMP have
formalised procedures for knowledge management?..…. 50
Table 13 - The results chart for question number 13: Extent you feel
that your ideas are listened to………………………….…. 51
Table 14 - The results chart for question number 14: Extent that you
feel morally obliged to share your knowledge………..…. 51
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____________________________________________________________
Chapter 1
Introduction
__________________________
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Introduction
Knowledge is widely recognised as a vital source of competitive advantage, but
there is little understanding of how organisations create and manage knowledge
(Nonaka, Toyama and Konno, 2000: 6). In the current economic climate public
services face a new challenge of achieving more with fewer resources; West
Midlands Police (WMP) accepts that challenge and is actively seeking to become
more efficient in how it manages it’s people resources. The author feels that he
can contribute to this culture change through this research paper and in doing so
highlight further opportunities for research.
1.1 Aims And Objectives
With the above comments in view the strategic aim of this research paper is:
‘To Establish How Effective West Midlands Police Are At Using The Tacit
Knowledge Of Their Front Line Staff ’
To achieve the strategic aim there are three clear and feasible objectives:
1. To what extent do response officers feel that their own knowledge
(tacit) is used by WMP?
2. Establish the factors that promote and encourage response officers
to share their knowledge with WMP
3. Establish the factors that discourage or prevent response officers
from sharing their knowledge
1.2 Justification For Research Topic
Crawford (2005) discusses the relationship between knowledge management and
transformational leadership. He states that if knowledge was formal, or explicit,
then the challenge for leaders would quite simply be compliance. However, the
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reality is different and much of the information is stored within the personal and
collective experience of the staff, otherwise known as tacit knowledge.
Bollinger and Smith (2001) explain that tacit knowledge is the unarticulated
information that is stored in people’s head and is difficult to share with others.
Perhaps the most pertinent and compelling assertion that drives this research
paper is provided by Clarke and Rollo (2001). They state that 42% of corporate
knowledge is held inside of the employee’s own mind. This fact really is the
challenge for large organisations such as WMP and is the primary driver for the
justification of this research.
The author has attempted to find empirical research that involves a British Police
force and the management of tacit knowledge, but could not locate such a project.
The closest is an article by Lowe and Leaver (2004) that focuses on change
management in a small British Police force. Whilst it does not focus solely on
knowledge management it does make various references to it. They state that
positive change can be encouraged by involving staff in their work and that of the
team that they work in.
This particular study focused on the devolvement of
human resource management, operational policing and financial management to
middle managers in a small provincial force.
Whilst we can draw some
conclusions that relate to this research paper, they are limited in their application
for larger metropolitan forces such as WMP. The research is over ten years old
and is too focused on a very specific change programme for that force. This paper
seeks to fill that gap by providing empirical research in line with the objectives
above that can be transferred to other police forces.
In a recent and compelling article by Rechburg and Syed (2013) they discuss the
psychological contract between employers and employees. They suggest that
the former can expect that employee’s tacit knowledge should be shared with
them because they own it. The article specifically details the tension between
both sides and suggests a renewed emphasis on an agreed moral contract that
is based on trust, fairness and justice. They believe that this will improve the
possibility of an effective knowledge management process.
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Their work is
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compelling as they draw together work and research from 138 different sources,
which combined with their own empirical data provides a strong and persuasive
paper. They do however, recognise limitations with their study. Firstly, the study
focused on profit focused organisations where the mantra ‘knowledge is power’
was prevalent; limiting it’s application for a non-profit organisation such as WMP.
Secondly, they failed to recognise the value of individual cultures such as Japan
where individualism is second to team work.
Rechburg and Syed suggest further research for organisations to review their
current approaches to knowledge management in light of the importance of an
ethical moral contract between both sides. They recognise the generalisation of
their results and encourage the reader to conduct surveys and experiments to
identify how knowledge management is seen by employees. They continue by
suggesting that questionnaires and focus groups may be useful to obtain a better
understanding of the tensions. This is perhaps the most compelling research that
identifies a gap in the empirical data that this project seeks to fill.
In summary, the author recognises the current financial climate that WMP, and
other public services, operate in and has a personal desire to provide empirical
data that will improve the way WMP expunge information from their staff.
However, a personal desire alone is not a clear justification for a research project
of this size. It is for this reason that the author has scanned the academic world
for any research that either compliments this study or identifies opportunity for
further work. The authors cited above all provide an excellent platform from which
to build upon and it is the opportunities for further research identified by RechBurg
and Syed (2013) that provide the most compelling justification for this work.
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Chapter 2
Literature Review
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Literature Review – Introduction
The purpose and content of this literature review is aligned to the strategic
objectives of this paper and is therefore split to form two distinct sections:
 The factors that promote and encourage response officers to
share their knowledge
 The factors that discourage or prevent response officers from
sharing their knowledge
There is, however, a caveat that must be clearly stated. Many of the factors
highlighted below are applicable and relevant to both sections because removing
a barrier that discourages or prevents the transfer of knowledge will naturally
promote and encourage staff to share information, a fact supported by Alwis and
Hartmann (2008: 4-5). With this in mind the first section will focus on factors that
encourage knowledge sharing but includes factors that are applicable to both
sides of the debate, including the importance of organisational culture and the
psychological contract.
The author has viewed a substantial quantity of academic research to complete
this section, from a variety of sources including prominent academic books and
electronic journal articles from many different countries. Intentionally, the author
has included the most recent and relevant research, with the majority of citations
emanating in the last ten years. Where possible, the author has found the original
document and included details from the original text, increasing the validity and
originality of this work.
There are clear and consistent themes coming to fore from the vast research
presented in this section and to aid clarity and brevity the author has included a
summary of the key points.
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2.1 Factors That Promote And Encourage Staff To Share Knowledge
______________________________________________________________
2.1.1 – The Intelligent Organisation
Learning about the learning process itself and developing formal processes for
knowledge management can shorten how long it takes to learn and improve the
quality and quantity of knowledge that is available (Stonehouse and Pemberton,
1999: 2). They continue by saying that the intelligent organisation is evolutionary
by nature, where questioning and creativity are encouraged, in the same way that
trust, teamwork and sharing is (1999: 2). Quinn (1992) broadly supports this
theory by stating that many of today’s successful businesses are intelligent
companies that have accelerated their learning curve by focusing on the key
points in the learning process. Whilst these points are not prominent themes, they
do have validity and WMP need to understand this process before they attempt
to improve the transfer of knowledge. Without this level of understanding and
diagnosis it is difficult to understand how WMP, or indeed any organisation, could
devise a clear strategy of improvement.
2.1.2 – Exploitation and Exploration Capability
A recently published article by Rabeh, Jimenéz-Jimenéz, and Martínez-Costa
(2013) aspired to assess the importance of absorptive capacity and organisational
memory in the process of internal exploitation for improved performance. It
sampled 249 Spanish companies with a specific focus on the food and beverage
industry, the furniture industry and metal production. Their study highlighted two
distinct terms: exploitation capability; exploration capability. These terms may
sound similar but in fact they represent entirely contrasting approaches to
knowledge management, as stated by Andriopoulos and Lewis (2009).
Rabeh, Jimenéz-Jimenéz, and Martínez-Costa (2013) explain exploitation to be
the capacity available to manage existing knowledge; exploration is the opposite
and is the ability and capacity to acquire new knowledge from external sources.
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They state the importance of absorptive capacity in the context of exploitation
capability.
Their empirical results show that there is a positive relationship
between the capacity of a firm to acquire and utilise external knowledge and it’s
capacity to exploit it’s own knowledge. Thus, a firm’s ability to absorb external
knowledge (exploration) is correlated to it’s ability to manipulate current
knowledge (exploitation).
Absorptive capacity and organisational memory are the two main contributors to
a firm’s exploitation capability.
The work of Rabeh, Jimenéz-Jimenéz, and
Martínez-Costa (2013) provides relevant, recent and compelling empirical data
based on a large sample of Spanish companies. There are however limitations
to their work. By their own admission the data is based on self-reporting by the
CEO’s and is therefore reliant on single key informants. Multiple informants would
enhance the validity of the study. Secondly, we have to question how transferable
this research is for WMP. Whilst the sample does include service-orientated firms,
it is limited to Spain and therefore may not represent our culture or work
environments.
2.1.3 – Organisational Structure
The structure of a firm is cited by many scholars (Jansen et al., 2006; Delaney
and Huselid, 1996; Goll and Rasheed, 1997) as one the main enablers that
facilitate knowledge creation. With reference to the work by Jansen et al (2006),
they tested the extent of formalised company structures on knowledge creation.
Interestingly, they found a positive relationship between the extent of rules and
procedures within organisational departments and exploitative knowledge
creation. Their findings also support Zander and Kogut (1995) who found that
formalisation makes existing knowledge and skills explicit and promotes the
dissemination of best practice across different departments.
Perhaps the most relevant literature and persuasive research on this particular
point is that by Adler and Borys (1996). Their empirical research tests the impact
of two different types of bureaucracy upon exploitive and explorative knowledge
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creation. They argue that well-designed rules and procedures encourage staff to
master their tasks and functions. Further to this they suggest that codification of
newly developed knowledge in rules and procedures will encourage the
replication and sharing of exploratory innovation. The effect of formalisation is
contingent on it’s design and ability to produce a bureaucratic culture that enables
knowledge transfer as opposed to a coercive bureaucracy.
Cardinal (2001)
broadly supports the above points by positing that centralisation of the decisionmaking process supports the exploitation of knowledge resources.
2.1.4 - Organisational Culture
The author posits that organisational culture has the most significant impact on
knowledge creation and knowledge management (Gupta and Govindarajan 2000:
Alavi and Leidner 2001). Conversely, organisational culture is believed to be the
main barrier to successful knowledge management in organisations (DeLong and
Fahey 2000).
It is clear from the extensive literature that the primary focus of earlier studies had
been to devise frameworks and typologies that define and present the key traits
of organisational culture (Rai 2011: 760). Rai continues by stating that recent
works in knowledge management have emphasised the correlation between
knowledge management and organisational culture. The prominent conceptual
frameworks from the vast array of literature are: ‘competing values framework’
(Quinn and Rohrbaugh, 1983); and the ‘SECI’ (socialisation, externalisation,
combination, internalistion) model of knowledge creation’ (Nonaka, Toyama and
Konno, 2000). A third, and more comprehensive integrative framework builds on
the two frameworks above, but includes ethics and trust in culture (Rai 2011).
The SECI model of knowledge creation presented by Nonaka, Toyama and
Konno (2000) was designed to understand the dynamic process in which an
organisation, creates, maintains and exploits knowledge. They argue that (2000:
6) academics and business people, particularly those from the Western world,
lack a general understanding of the knowledge-creating programme. They posit
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that traditional Western companies are viewed as information processing
machines that use environmental data to solve problems and adapt strategy
based on specified goals. They believe that such a static and passive view of the
organisation does not capture the dynamic nature of knowledge creation.
It is argued by Rai (2011: 794) that the ‘competing values framework’ and ‘SECI
model’ are effective but fail to consider the impact of an ethical and trusting culture
on knowledge management. He believes that adding this extra dimension could
improve our understanding and appreciation of managerial leadership behaviour
that enables effective knowledge management. He concludes this point by stating
that organisational leaders should strive to develop an environment of openness,
honesty, mutual trust, compassion and fairness that will promote the sharing of
information. Interestingly, Rai (2011) is a senior leader in the Indian Police who
has produced his work for a prominent and credible Journal in the field of
knowledge management. His role and industry are clearly transferable to WMP.
He does, however, fail to consider how new ideas are produced and how depth
of understanding occurs.
Further, whilst he critiques the competing values
framework and SECI model, he fails to explain their short-comings (Rai, 2011:
795). A balanced and persuasive argument would consider both perspectives but
he does not do this and therefore reduces the credibility of his argument.
In support of RAI’s research, it is also argued (Denison, Hooljberg, and Quinn,
1995) that less effective managers behave in a more traditional way, placing
greater emphasis on control, stability and productivity than their more effective
counterparts. They also believe that less effective managers overlook the human
element of leadership that may cause adverse consequences for knowledge
management. This point is further emphasised by the Nonaka, Toyama and
Konno (2000: 14) as they believe knowledge creation is a dynamic process that
requires humans to transcend their own views and boundaries.
Interaction
amongst individuals, or between individuals, and their environment is paramount.
They dismiss theories presented by other scholars who believe knowledge
creation is primarily driven by individuals who may be viewed as static or inhuman.
They also recognise (2000: 15) that individuals must understand the ‘Ba’ (roughly
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translated to mean place) that we operate in and must not be constricted by
boundaries, rather understand the context and complexities of the environment
and people around us.
2.1.5 – The Psychological Contract
The research presented above leads us into the debate on the ‘psychological
contract’ in knowledge management. In the sections above we discussed the
importance of organisational culture on knowledge management but in particular
the human element of culture. There is a great deal of research available on this
topic and below is a summary of the main arguments.
In a recent and compelling article by Rechburg and Syed (2013) they discuss the
psychological contract between employers and employees. They suggest that
the former expects that employee’s tacit knowledge should be shared with them
because they own it. This can also be referred to as the psychological contract.
The article specifically details the tension between both sides and suggests a
renewed emphasis on an agreed moral contract that is based on trust, fairness
and justice. They believe that this will improve the possibility of an effective
knowledge management process. Their work is compelling as they draw together
work and research from 138 other sources, which combined with their own
empirical data provides a strong and persuasive paper.
They do however,
recognise limitations with their study. Firstly, the study focused on profit focused
organisations where the mantra ‘knowledge is power’ was prevalent; limiting it’s
application for a non-profit organisation such as WMP. Secondly, they failed to
recognise the value of individual cultures such as Japan where individualism is
second to team work.
Rechburg and Syed suggest further research for organisations to review their
current approaches to knowledge management in light of importance of an ethical
moral contract between both sides. They recognise the generalisation of their
results and encourage the reader to conduct surveys and experiments to identify
how knowledge management is seen by employees.
They continue by
suggesting that questionnaires and focus groups may be useful to obtain a better
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understanding of the tensions.
2.1.6 – The Human Factors
Alwis and Hartmann (2008: 4-5) examine the role of tacit knowledge within
innovative companies and highlight the factors that prevent and encourage the
successful transfer of tacit knowledge.
They begin by stating that first and
foremost the barriers must be removed. They suggest that organisations must
start by focusing on the human factors, such as motivation, commitment and
rewards. Staff must be allowed the time, space and opportunity to transfer their
knowledge. We must be mindful that their work was based on companies focused
on innovation and therefore may not be transferable to a police environment.
However, in contrast, a more compelling and transferable paper by Cavusgil,
Calantone, and Zhao (2003) conducted a study of 182 manufacturing/service
companies in America, an industry that is similar to that which a police force
operates within. They support Alwis and Hartmann by concluding that mutual
trust and positive interactions within and between organisations encourage the
transfer of knowledge. They further explain that organisations and departments
have to be structured to support the transfer of information.
2.2 Factors That Discourage Or Prevent Staff From Sharing Knowledge
______________________________________________________________
2.2.1 – Stickiness of Knowledge
Szulanski (2003: 75) discusses the ‘stickiness of knowledge’ when it is transferred
between entities and stipulates that there are three aspects, the knowledge
source, the knowledge recipient and the context. When the source and recipient
operate in a similar context and similar activity the level of stickiness is low,
however, the opposite is true when they work in different environments, with
different objectives. Szulanski’s empirical research focused on the barriers in the
transfer process. He identified three main barriers that inhibited the transfer of
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tacit knowledge:
 The ambiguity of the tacit knowledge to be transferred had a significant
impact and was apparent when the sender and receiver could find
congruence.
 The absorptive capacity of the receiver.
 The third, and interconnected barrier, is the relationship between sender
and receiver, if this is poor then the sender is less likely to transfer that
knowledge.
Research by scholars such as van Baalen, Bloemhof-Ruwaard and van Heck
(2005: 7) add credibility to Szulanski’s work by saying that people on the source
side may be reluctant to share the information because they fear a loss of control
of that information or insufficient reward or even that they do not understand the
importance of that information to the receiver.
2.2.2 – The Role of Information Technology in Knowledge Management
A recent and compelling article by Seidler-de Alwis and Hartmann (2008: 5)
focused on using tacit knowledge within innovative companies. Their work is
printed in the credible and uniquely relevant Journal of Knowledge Management
that contains a vast array of citations and has reviewed a large proportion of the
available, and recent research, on knowledge management. It appears to be
relevant and transferable research for WMP because they are a company who
constantly seek to innovate. They posit that having reviewed the available
literature on the transfer of tacit knowledge there is considerable consensus that
failure to share information can be explained by the failure to consider the human
factors in the transfer process and an over emphasis on information or information
technology solutions. Seidler-de Alwis and Hartmann clearly question the
significance of IT in the transfer process, but that position is subject of great
debate and one we shall explore briefly now.
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Panahi, Watson and Partridge (2013) discuss whether tacit knowledge sharing
through information technology is possible.
They state that information and
communication technology has been a significant factor in facilitating the sharing
of knowledge, but they identify many scholars who support and oppose the use
of ICT in knowledge management. Whilst the argument for and against remains
in question they do agree on one vital point that is highly applicable to this paper
and therefore WMP; using technology alone to transfer tacit knowledge is
insufficient and the emergence of social web tools should be used to compliment
a more diverse and coherent knowledge management strategy.
It is clear from this research alone that WMP need to consider and implement a
mixture of tactics to suit the diversity of personalities, cultures and leadership
styles. Overall, the author finds this article compelling and highly applicable to
WMP. It considers a wide range of literary sources (over 100); each of them
carefully reviewed and evaluated.
It is the most recent research in this
assignment and only includes articles between 2000 and 2013 to increase validity
and relevance to the current climate.
2.2.3 Power Distance, Policies and Procedures
In the section above we discussed the importance of creating a culture that
encourages and promotes the transfer of information.
There are many
researchers who prescribe to that theory and three of those are Wang, Su and
Yang (2011: 366-367). In their article on organisational culture and knowledge
creation capability they believe culture to be the dominant factor that promotes
knowledge creation, however, in contrast they believe that power distance has
the most significant negative effect.
Organisations with high power distance implement stringent control policies and
procedures that govern the behaviour of individuals, teams and departments.
They inhibit creative activities such as knowledge creation. They continue to say
people from high power organisations are task focused and ignore the value of
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knowledge exchange and therefore knowledge creation is low. They interviewed
staff from 241 companies, which is a considerable achievement if we consider the
time, effort and training that is required to complete such research. However, the
research only focused on the Japanese manufacturing industry which is not
necessarily transferable to the public service sector that WMP operates in.
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Chapter 3
Methodology
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Methodology Introduction
Planning and preparing for a research project such as this requires an
understanding of the various research methods that exist, but it does not
necessarily require the researcher to employ all of those methods. Each project
is different and may require a different approach that has to be justified by the
researcher. This section has three distinct parts:
1. Critical review of the three main research paradigms/philosophies in social
research (quantitative; qualitative; mixed methods) together with a clear rationale
for the authors chosen approach in this paper
2. Critical review of the four main social research techniques (questionnaires,
interviews, observation, documents) with an explanation as to the chosen
methods utilised in this paper
3. Explanation of the research methodology that also highlights limitations of this
research approach
3.1 The Three Social Research Paradigms
3.1.1 The History
Although there is some disagreement on the dates, the general theme is that the
first paradigm of positivism (linked to quantitative methodologies in the 1950’s to
mid 1970’s) was replaced by a period of interpretivism (linked to qualitative
methodologies between mid 70’s and early 90’s) in social research approaches
(Denscombe, 2008: 271). Denscombe also states that mixed methodologies (also
known as triangulation) emerged as a credible and viable third paradigm from the
mid 1990’s and is basically a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods. This
third paradigm is accepted by many scholars as the third paradigm in social
research that has developed a platform of credible practices that are a viable
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alternative to qualitative and quantitative paradigms (Denscombe, 2008: 270).
The current climate in social research is perfectly articulated by Johnson,
Onwuegbuzie and Turner (2007: 117) as:
“we currently are in a three methodological or research paradigm world,
with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research all thriving and
coexisting”.
3.1.2 Positivism
This is the epistemological standpoint that observations and experiences are the
most important or only method to gain knowledge, and that all controversies
should be supported and verified by observations (Hjørland, 2005: 132). He
continues by saying empiricist epistemologies are searching for simple
observations, which people observing can agree on (i.e. intersubjectivity). The
scientific process is viewed as the collecting of verified observations and as
generalizing from such a collection by induction. Hjørland concludes by stating
that the basic methods of empiricism are thus observation and induction.
Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (2006: 60) support this view by stating that the
researcher should be objective and detached from the objects of research.
Positivist research intends to offer explanations leading to control and
predictability. Some believe that positivist approaches are quite simply a
commonsensical way of conducting research. Quantitative approaches that use
statistics and experiments are seen as classic examples.
3.1.3 Interpretivism
Interpretivist approaches to social research see interpretations of the social world
as culturally derived and historically situated. Interpretivism is often linked to the
phrase ‘verstehen’ otherwise known as understanding. Interpretivism has many
variants, including hermeneutics, phenomenology and symbolic interactionism
(Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 2006). It is often linked to qualitative research
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(Goldkuhl, 2012).
Interpretive methods of research adopt the belief that reality is a social
construction by human actors and value-free data cannot be obtained because
the enquirer will subconsciously use his or her preconceptions to guide the
process of research (Walsham, 1995: 376).
Bell (2006: 7) articulates the challenge that many research projects, such as this
one, face by stating that different styles and approaches may utilise a variety of
methods to gather data, however, there is not one approach that prescribes, nor
automatically rejects any method. She continues by saying that researchers
following a positivism (quantitative) philosophy collect facts and identify the
relationship between those facts. They use techniques that are likely to produce
quantifiable results. Bell, continues to say that researchers adopting a (qualitative)
perspective focus more on understanding individuals; they seek insights, rather
than statistical conclusions.
The next section presents a balanced argument for and against a mixed method
research approach and provides empirical justification for the authors chosen
research philosophy that he is following for this project.
3.2 The Triangulation Debate
There is some debate on the effectiveness of a triangulation approach to social
research.
This section aims to discuss the key themes. We shall start by
reviewing the arguments against triangulation before presenting the arguments in
support of a mixed methodology approach.
3.2.1 - Disadvantages of Triangulation
Denscombe (2010: 349) believes that there are three draw-backs when using a
mixed-methodology approach:
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 Certain aspects of each methodology are sacrificed as most researchers
are constrained by time and money. This may limit the scope of the
research, narrow the range of research questions and reduce the volume
of data collected.
 Data analysis becomes more complex as the researcher is required to
compare, contrast and integrate the findings from qualitative and
quantitative data. For example comparing the results from a questionnaire
with feedback from a focus group is difficult, both sets of data will not
correlate.
 Triangulation can be risky. There is an implicit assumption underlying the
use of triangulation that the alternative perspectives will compliment each
other and produce results that can be compared and contrasted. However,
that is not always the case and the researcher may not have the time or
resources to find the answer and therefore the results may be
‘inconclusive’.
Bell (2006) supports the points raised above believes that the majority of small
scale projects are limited by time and resources and will therefore be limited to
single method strategies.
Laws (2003: 279) warns that a social constructionist approach does not believe
that there is one social ‘thing’ which can be seen from different angles and that
the accounts may not match. The researcher may then encounter problems to
understand the data and identify the themes.
Finally, to conclude this section we shall discuss the work of Bergman (2008). He
suggests that using multiple sources of information to check the validity of the
researchers initial interpretation and to provide complimentary data that is
routinely used in everyday life, but should not reject triangulation methods on
philosophical grounds. There are however, significant problems that we should
not ignore. Various scholars use it as a validation technique, especially in
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discussing qualitative methods, to reduce the social research process to a series
of techniques or rules. Qualitative researchers’ criticisms are a reaction against
this technicism; an insistence on the interpretative judgment they believe exists in
the research process. In conclusion, Bergman, states that the spirit of much
advocacy of mixed methods research much be applauded, however, it
undermines the tendency to assume that there are impermeable boundaries
between quantitative and qualitative information.
One of the first researchers to discuss triangulation was Jick (1979) and his work
has been included in this review to highlight that mixed methodologies were just
as prevalent in 1979 as they are today. Jick states that it was tradition for social
science research methods to advocate the use of multiple methods and most text
books in that era underscore the desirability of mixing methods given the
strengths and weaknesses found in single method designs.
3.2.2 - Advantages of Triangulation
A prominent supporter is Laws (2003: 278) who describes it as getting a ‘fix’ on
the issue from multiple sources, which can then be used to identify common
themes. Laws (2003: 279) continues to say that the key to triangulation is to
observe the same thing from a variety of perspectives and thus confirm or
challenge the findings of one method with those of another. She does however,
warn the reader that conflicting themes, does not necessarily mean that the data
collection process is flawed. The researcher must critically examine the meaning
of any mismatch to make sense of them, a point also supported by Bell (2006:
116). She believes that if we want to build confidence and trustworthiness into
our research we must collect information in different ways.
A prominent figure and credible scholar in this field is Denscombe (2010: 346). In
support of Laws (2003) above he describes triangulation as the practice of viewing
things from more than one perspective and will involve different methods and
sources of data. Denscombe (2010: 348) suggests two clear benefits:
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 Improved accuracy – Triangulation focuses on validating the findings in
terms of accuracy and authenticity. Alternative methods are employed as
confirmation, corroborating the findings.
 Fuller picture – Triangulation focuses on producing complementary data to
enhance the completeness of the findings. It can build on findings
produced by a different viewpoint.
Palakshappa and Gordon (2006) examined collaborative relationships using a
mixed-method approach. They identified subtle nuances that were unlikely to be
accessible using traditional quantitative design. Their research paper seeks to
gain an understanding of staff perceptions and concerns in relation to knowledge
management. As it is not an exact science and is difficult to quantify, they believe
a purely quantitative methodology would not have identified the real issues.
After conducting a detailed and thorough review of the literature available on this
topic, two articles stood out for the author because they were recent and credible.
Accepting all the arguments presented above, it is the content of the following two
articles that swing the pendulum in support of a mixed methodological approach.
The first is by Marti and Mertens (2014). The use of mixed methodologies in social
transformation research is one of the long standing debates, however, they posit
that a mixed approach to address social justice issues are particularly effective
because they provide a voice to under privileged populations.
Mertens (2011) stipulates that there has been a significant shift in fields such as
gender violence and health that now support the use of triangulation in research
and professionals would gain much from mixed methods research.
The second article, and the conclusion to the arguments in support of triangulation
is by Hoque, Covaleski and Gooneratne (2013). The article has credibility
because it considers the main themes and researchers who have contributed to
the debate on triangulation in research. It seeks to support or counter the many
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and complex arguments presented in the last few decades. One of those
arguments was presented above and states that multiple methods may produce
conflicting and contrasting data that may be difficult to understand and decipher.
This article addresses that point and believes that researchers should embrace
that diversity because it will enhance the accuracy of their judgments and provide
a richer picture of the true issues. Interestingly they present a framework to assist
researchers to understand and code data from different perspectives.
3.3 The Four Research Techniques
Having critically examined the role of triangulation, and decided to use such an
approach for this research paper, it is important to critically examine the various
research techniques that are available before deciding which are the most
suitable for this study.
There is a vast array of literature available that identify methods of social research,
however, it is important to maintain a structured approach to the research. The
author has chosen to cite the work of Denscombe (2010) because he appears to
be a widely cited and respected scholar in the field of social research. His latest
textbook was published in 2010 and is therefore more credible and reliable as he
considers the latest empirical research. In support of Denscombe, the author has
considered the work of another prominent scholar (Laws, 2003: 283), who
identifies the same four techniques, therefore adding credibility and validity to
Denscombe’s assertion.
The four main methods for social researchers, according to Denscombe (2010:
153) are:
1. Questionnaires
2. Interviews
3. Observation
4. Documents
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3.3.1 - Questionnaires
Questionnaires should do the following (Denscombe, 2010: 155):
 Collect information that can be used as data for analysis. They should not
be designed to change people’s opinions or convey information, they are
designed to discover information
 Consist of a written list of questions that are identical and therefore promote
consistency
 Gather information by asking people directly about the aims of the
research. They should have a clear objective and the questions designed
to elicit information directly relating to the strategic aims
3.3.1.1 Advantages
Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (2006: 179) believe that questionnaires are the most
common research technique. They summarise the advantages of them as (2006:
79):
 Relatively easy to administer, sometimes without the need for field
research.
 Provide a large quantity of data quickly.
 Data is produced in a generalised format that is easier to analyse.
In support of the comments above, it is argued by (Cohen, Manion and Morrison,
2007: 351) that questionnaires are generally more reliable because they are
anonymous and therefore promote honesty. They are more economical than an
interview in terms of time and money.
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Ruane (2005:123) believes that questionnaires are the most popular survey
option and a good one can stand on it’s own and enable a researcher to collect
data quickly and easily.
Denscombe (2010: 169) broadly supports the scholars above by identifying five
advantages of questionnaires:
 They are economical and can supply a relatively large amount of data,
quickly, at low cost.
 Easy to arrange and can be distributed quickly to a large number of people.
 Standardised answers - are easier to analyse and less likely to be
contaminated by variations in the wording of questions.
 Pre-coded answers allow the researcher to collate and analyse large
quantities of data in a comparable format. This also assists the respondent
who has the simple task of selecting an option form a pre-determined list.
 They increase data accuracy as they are inputted directly onto computer
software that allows for the data to be analysed quickly and accurately.
3.3.1.2. Disadvantages
There are many disadvantages of questionnaires and in direct contrast to the
arguments posited by Denscombe (2010:170) he lists the disadvantages:
 Pre-coded questions can be frustrating. Some respondents prefer to tick
a box, others may feel frustrated and restricted leading to lack of
cooperation with the process.
 Pre-coded questions can bias the findings towards the researcher, rather
than the respondent’s way of seeing things.
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 They do not allow the researcher to check the accuracy and truthfulness of
the answers.
 The agenda of the interview is set by the researcher.
The researcher is not in a position to check the validity, accuracy or wider context
of the data, relying more on breadth as opposed to depth; a critical issue for small
scale projects such as this (Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 2006: 179).
It is also suggested that questionnaires have a low return rate and therefore
provide limited information to analyse (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007: 352).
They also believe that unlike interviews a questionnaire does not allow the
researcher to clarify any misunderstandings and therefore the results may be
inaccurate and widely fluctuate.
3.3.2 – Interviews
3.3.2.1 Advantages
Interviews enable the respondent to convey their interpretation of the world and
express their point of view (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007: 349). They
believe that the interview process is a powerful tool for any researcher. They also
state that people are more likely to participate in an interview as they are more
involved and therefore more motivated. This is supported by May (2011: 105) who
states that they allow the interviewer to record the context of the interview and
non-verbal gestures of the respondent. He continues to say that this method
yields a high return rate, often at a higher cost, with greater control of the
interview.
Denscombe (2007: 202-203) supports the points raised above and identifies
numerous advantages of his own:
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 They are able to deal with more complex topics that may require more
detail and need probing.
 They require little equipment and only require interview skills.
 They are probably the most flexible method of data collection as the
interviewer can change the direction of the interview as things develop.
 As they are pre-arranged and scheduled for a convenient time people tend
to adhere to that arrangement.
 Direct contact with the respondent allows the interviewer to check data for
accuracy and relevance. Interviews can be recorded and therefore
accurate transcripts can be produced, therefore eliminating inaccuracies.
 They can be a rewarding experience for the informant. In comparison with
questionnaires, observation and experiments, there is a personal element
that people tend to enjoy the opportunity to express their thoughts in a safe
and secure environment.
In conclusion to the many advantages that are listed above and to the many other
authors that have contributed to this debate, there is one quote that summarises
the main advantage of interviews. That quote is provided by Ruane (2005: 146)
and is as follows:
“Of all the data collection techniques available in our search for information,
the interview strikes many as the single best device for promoting
understanding and getting at the truth”
3.3.2.2. Disadvantages
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204) identifies many of them:
 In contrast with questionnaires the data has to be transcribed, coded and
analysed which demands more time.
 The impact of the interviewer and context means that consistency and
objectivity are hard to achieve.
 The data from interviews are based on what people say and not what they
do, the two are often very different. The latter should not be accepted as
the truth. Interviewee statements are influenced by the identity of the
researcher.
However, May (2011: 106) does counter his own argument by stipulating that
interviews are slower than other methods.
It is also suggested that interviews are subjected to higher levels of bias and
subjectivity on the part of the interviewer (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007:
352).
3.3.3 – Observation
3.3.3.1 Advantages
There are two types of observation research used in social sciences. The first is
systematic and has origins in social psychology; in particular a classroom setting
(Denscombe, 2007: 206). It is normally linked to the production of quantitative
data and statistical analysis. The second type is participant observation and is
associated with sociology and anthropology. It normally produces qualitative
data. Denscombe (2007: 214) identifies the following advantages:
 They record what people actually do as opposed to what they say.
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 It can collect significant quantities of data in a relatively short time period.
 They produce pre-coded information that is easily analysed.
 It should achieve high levels of inter-observer reliability because two or
more observers should record similar data.
Czarniawska (2014: 46) supports some of the above points by highlighting the
work of Henry Mintzberg (1970) who criticised management studies of that time
because they failed to record exactly what was transacted, relying on what
researchers were told as opposed to what actually happened. He believed that
structured observation would alleviate this problem.
3.3.3.2 Disadvantages
As with the previous methods, Denscombe does stipulate a number of important
disadvantages, they are:
 Whilst they do record exactly what happens, they fail to identify the
intention of that behaviour.
 It assumes that overt behaviours can be measured into categories that are
straightforward and unproblematic.
They can ignore or distort the
subtleties of the situation.
 They tend to miss the contextual information that impacts on the behaviour
that is subject of the observations.
 Can the researcher really blend into the background and therefore not
influence the behaviour of the people being observed?
Czarniawska, (2014: 46) cites the work of Rosemary Stewart (1967) who critiqued
observations as a research method by identifying three disadvantages: a lack of
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understanding of what was being observed; an exclusion from all confidential
activities; and the size of the sample. These are in line with Denscombe’s
observation and therefore are more credible.
Finally, Knight (2002: 56) believes that highly structured observations have three
main problems:
 The work is only as good as the explicit and tacit theories on which the
schedule is based.
 They rely on the observers making low inference observations.
 They can miss the true meaning of the situation because they can only
observe behaviour.
3.3.4 – Documents
Researchers are expected to read, understand and critically analyse the work of
credible scholars, practitioners and policy-makers for any research projects
analyse documents (Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 2006: 169).
3.3.4.1 Advantages
Denscombe (2007: 244) explains the advantages of documentary research as:
 Vast quantities of data are widely available and cheap to access.
 It is a cost effective method of getting data, particularly for large scale
projects.
 They are a source of data which is permanent and available in a form that
can be checked by others.
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3.3.4.2 Disadvantages
 The researcher needs to be careful regarding the information they use as
some sources may not be academically credible or indeed accurate.
 The information will have been produced for a different purpose and
therefore secondary to aims of their research.
 Documents will mean more to the author than the objective picture of
reality.
There is little point in debating the merits of utilising documents in this project
because the academic world is united on it’s views that we must, as researchers,
research our chosen topic before deciding on whether to conduct primary
research. As you can see from the literature review and methodology section
above, this project is widely cited and has conducted a thorough and
comprehensive review of the relevant literature. In addition to this the author has
conducted further primary research to contrast their findings with the literature
review shown above. This is discussed in more detail below.
3.4 Project Methodology
This chapter started by reviewing the arguments for and against a mixed
methodology approach and can be summarised as follows. The author, by nature,
is a positivist and would ordinarily favour quantitative techniques such as
questionnaires because they provide clear and measurable data. He agrees with
the viewpoint of Hjørland (2005) as stated above in that observations and
experiences are the most important or only method to gain knowledge, and that
all controversies should be supported and verified by observations. However, the
author’s viewpoint has moved along the continuum towards a more interpretivist
approach, due to the persuasiveness and credibility of the empirical data
presented in the above sections. There are two prominent, recent and compelling
articles by Mertens (2011) and Hoque, Covaleski and Gooneratne (2013) that
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swing the debate in favour of a mixed approach. The latter recognise that a mixed
method approach will produce conflicting and different data sets, but state that a
researcher must embrace that diversity to produce a much ‘richer’ picture.
Bell (2006: 7) stated that there is not one approach that prescribes, nor
automatically rejects any method. The inference from this is that the researcher
should select an approach that is the most appropriate for the aims and objectives
they are seeking to satisfy. The information gleamed from the literature review
must also be considered before selecting the appropriate methodology. Crawford
(2005) stated that much of the corporate information is stored with the personal
and collective experience of staff and is therefore difficult to measure. Rechburg
and Syed (2013) recognised the difficulties of measuring tacit knowledge transfer
and recommended a mixture of questionnaire and focus groups.
With all the above information in mind it is clear that anything other than a mixed
method approach will fail to identify the key issues because by it’s very definition
tacit knowledge is often intangible and difficult to understand.
This paper then discussed the advantages and disadvantages of the four main
research techniques:

Questionnaires

Interviews

Observations

Documentation
Questionnaires are accepted by many scholars as the most common research
technique that are easy to administer, can gather large quantities of data quickly
and are popular with respondents because they are generally quick and easy to
complete. They do, however, focus on breadth rather than depth and fail to check
to validity, accuracy and context of the information. It would be remiss of the
author if this project failed to include a questionnaire because WMP is such a
large organisation it is not feasible, efficient or possible to visit everyone in person.
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Interviews allow the respondent to convey their interpretation of the world and
often are therapeutic for the respondent. They allow the researcher to obtain a
much deeper data set as they have the flexibility to steer the interview depending
on the answers of the interviewee. The most compelling advantage is perfectly
described by Ruane (2005: 146) who states that:
“Of all the data collection techniques available in our search for information,
the interview strikes many as the single best device for promoting
understanding and getting at the truth..”
The author has completed 9 semi-structured interviews to triangulate the
quantitative data from the questionnaires.
Observations are used to obtain a clearer picture of what actually happens as
opposed to what people say happens, but as discussed above many believe that
as a research technique they fail to grasp the context of the behaviour.
Observations will not be used in this research project because as tacit knowledge
is often intangible and difficult to measure the author does not feel that this
techniques will identify relevant or compelling data.
Finally, we discussed the role of documents and the important role they play in
any research paper. As you can observe from the reference list this project has
used a vast and diverse range of references to inform the literature review and
methodology sections. This method is a necessity for any research project.
3.5 A Discussion On The Sample Size
Bell (2006) summarises the situation succinctly by saying that there are no set
rules on how many questionnaires to distribute, or how many interviews to
conduct, the aim is to obtain a representative sample of your chosen population.
Response policing in the West Midlands Police is split across 10 areas known as
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Local Policing Units (LPU’s). Each LPU has five teams that rotate around each
other to ensure a twenty-four hour response to emergency calls. The total number
of response officers in WMP is approximately one thousand. The intention was
to canvass the opinion of staff from five different LPU’s (Coventry, Solihull,
Birmingham East, Birmingham North and Wolverhampton), as logistically it would
be difficult to visit each area due to time and resource constraints. The author
conducted the questionnaires and interviews. He chose to visit each area in
person, as he believed that a personal visit would result in a higher rate of return.
Interestingly, not one officer refused to complete a questionnaire or to participate
in an interview. The only problem was that by the very nature of their role some
of the officers were out of the station responding to emergency calls and could
not complete the questionnaire.
A total of 44 people completed a questionnaire and nine people participated in an
interview. Had the author had more time and resources he would have increased
this number closer to 100 but due to the vast geographical area of the West
Midlands Police it was not feasible or possible.
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Chapter 4
Findings, Critical Analysis
and Discussion
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Introduction Findings and Analysis
The aims and objectives of this project have remained constant and provide the
platform on which to present and critically discuss the empirical data obtained
from the 44 questionnaires and 9 interviews. However, this section will begin by
presenting the findings for each of the 14 questionnaires in the form of a column
chart. The actual questionnaire is presented in the appendix and should be
referred to in conjunction with this section. The subsequent sections will be split
into three and aligned to the three strategic objectives of this project. For ease of
reading it would be pertinent at this stage to repeat the three objectives:
1. To what extent do response officers feel that their own knowledge
(tacit) is used by WMP? (Q’s 1, 2, 3, 8, 10, 13)
2. Establish the factors that promote and encourage response officers
to share their knowledge with WMP (Q’s 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 14)
3. Establish the factors that discourage or prevent response officers
from sharing their knowledge (Q’s 2, 4, 9, 12)
Each of the 14 questions will be discussed under one of three objectives and
where applicable the qualitative data from the interviews will be included to add
credibility and reliability to any inferences the author posits.
4.1 Questionnaire Findings
Please see the tables below.
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Question/Table 1 – WMP Recognise The Importance Of Tacit Knowledge?
25
20
15
10
5
0
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Neither
Agree or
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Question/Table 2 – Effective Range Of Methods To Extract Tacit
Knowledge?
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Strongly
Agree
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Agree
Neither
Agree or
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
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Question/Table 3 – Does Your Supervisor Use Your Tacit Knowledge?
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Always
Sometimes
Not Sure
Infrequently
Never
Question/Table 4 – Are You Given The Time And Space To Transfer
Knowledge?
25
20
15
10
5
0
Always
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Sometimes
Not Sure
Infrequently
Never
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Question/Table 5 – Is Good Work Rewarded?
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Always
Sometimes
Not Sure
Infrequently
Never
Question/Table 6 – Is Your Working Environment Based On Openness?
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Always
Sometimes
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Not Sure
Infrequently
Never
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Question/Table 7 – Is Your Working Environment Based On Trust/Fairness?
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Always
Sometimes
Not Sure
Infrequently
Never
Question/Table 8 – How Effective Are WMP At Translating Your
Information?
25
20
15
10
5
0
Very
Effective
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Effective
Neither
Effective or
Ineffective
Ineffective
Very
Ineffective
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Question/Table 9 – Extent That Different Departments Share Knowledge?
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Always
Sometimes
Not Sure
Infrequently
Never
Question/Table 10 – Are You Encouraged To Share Your Knowledge?
25
20
15
10
5
0
Always
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Sometimes
Not Sure
Infrequently
Never
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Question/Table 11 – Encouraged To Share Knowledge Outside Of Your
Team?
25
20
15
10
5
0
Always
Sometimes
Not Sure
Infrequently
Never
Question/Table 12 – Do WMP Have Formalised Procedures For KM?
20
15
10
5
0
Strongly
Agree
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Agree
Neither
Agree or
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
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Question/Table 13 – Extent You Feel Your Ideas Are Listened To?
25
20
15
10
5
0
Always
Sometimes
Not Sure
Infrequently
Never
Question/Table 14 – Extent You Feel Morally Obliged To Share Your Tacit
Knowledge?
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Strongly
Agree
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Agree
Neither
Agree or
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
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4.2 To What Extent Do Response Officers Feel That Their Own Knowledge
(tacit) is Used BY WMP?
______________________________________________________________
4.2.1 – Recognising The Importance Of Tacit Knowledge
The first question asked respondents directly if they agreed with the statement
that WMP recognise the importance of utilising the knowledge of their staff and
rather persuasively 68% (30) of respondents either disagreed or strongly
disagreed. Of note, none of the respondents ticked the ‘strongly agree’ box.
Based on this data in isolation we could draw an inference that for reasons that
we will highlight below, WMP either just don’t recognise the importance of
knowledge management, or they do, but are ineffective at promoting or doing it.
In the methodology section above we debated the need to triangulate our
methodology and cited many advantages for that; one of those was presented by
Laws (2003: 279) who said that the key to triangulation is to observe the same
thing from a variety of perspectives and thus confirm or challenge the findings of
one method with those of another. To add clarity it is important to cross-reference
the findings with the nine interviews.
All nine interviewees were asked the same question and the theme continued, as
seven of the nine interviewees were critical of WMP. Only one of interviewees
was positive, but even they believed that the situation had changed dramatically
in the last six months because the organisation did not have the time or resources.
Three people who work in completely different policing areas used virtually
identical wording by saying that WMP don’t even know the full skill sets of staff
and therefore don’t use our skills properly. Many respondents believed that ideas
they suggest are not listened to (which is discussed in more detail below).
Perhaps the most interesting comment and an indication as to what the reality of
the situation may be, can be inferred from the following quote:
“The deputy chief constable trys but it gets lost in translation as it comes
down”
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Does this suggest that senior leaders in the organisation do try and use the
knowledge of it’s frontline staff but somewhere down the line of communication
their messages become lost and/or confused? This may be a whole area of
research that WMP need to consider.
The findings from question 1 have significantly higher proportion of negative
responses than positive and the results from both methods do compliment each
other.
4.2.2 – Range Of Methods Employed To Gather Information
Questions 2 and 8 can be themed together as they identify if the range of methods
that WMP use to illicit tacit knowledge are effective, followed by the ability of WMP
to translate that information into usable information. With regard to the former the
answers were more evenly split than question 1, but still with a slightly higher
number of negative responses to suggest that staff do not feel WMP have an
effective range of measures. Question 8 produces fascinating results.
As you
may expect, if the majority of people answered question 2 negatively, they would
do the same in question 8, however, this was not the case. Just under half of the
respondents (48%) selected neither effective or ineffective. The remaining results
were again fairly evenly split, with slightly more negative responses than positive
ones.
4.2.2.1 – Information Technology
In the literature review we discussed the role of technology in knowledge
management and specifically cited the research by Panahi, Watson and Partridge
(2013). They concluded that the debate on the effectiveness of IT still remains,
however, one thing is clear; using technology alone to transfer tacit knowledge is
insufficient and the emergence of social web tools should be used to compliment
a more diverse and coherent knowledge management strategy.
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The findings from questions 2 and 8 are not directly supported by the interview
data because the respondents were not asked the exact same questions,
however the majority of respondents mentioned the poor IT systems as a barrier
to knowledge transfer. These findings will be discussed in further detail in the
section below.
4.2.3 – Supervisors Utilising Staff Knowledge
Questions 3 and 10 from the questionnaire and interview question 5 all refer to
how well the respondents felt that their immediate supervisors use their
knowledge. The results are fascinating and completely contradict the findings
from the first question discussed above (3.2.1). A total of 89% of the respondents
believed that their supervisors always or sometimes used their knowledge. Even
more compelling is that 93% felt that they are either always or sometimes
encouraged to share their knowledge within their own team. In support of this, 8
of the 9 interviewees were very positive about their supervision and explained that
they are encouraged to share their knowledge every day during briefing. The
author observed a strong trend in support of direct line supervisors running
through all nine interviews. These findings may infer that response officers in
general feel that team supervisors do use, or at least attempt to use, their
knowledge and experience, but for reasons that are unclear at this stage they do
not believe that senior managers adhere to the same principle based on the
findings from question 1.
4.2.4 – Are Suggestions/Ideas Listened To?
The sections above canvassed respondents opinions on how well WMP and
direct line supervisors were at eliciting their experience and knowledge, however,
the next question is how effective are WMP at actually transferring any tacit
knowledge into usable information/intelligence. Question 13 in the questionnaire
and question 6 in the interview asked respondents to clarify if their suggestions
and ideas were listened to. The results from the questionnaires are inconclusive
as 59% answered infrequently or never and 30% said sometimes. Whilst there
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are clearly a higher proportion of negative responses this data alone does explain
the mixed results.
The interviews do provide clarity. Two prominent themes came to the fore. Firstly,
the majority of respondents stated that local supervisors are effective but senior
managers are not. One respondent said:
“higher ranks prevent good ideas”
Another person added more context and said:
“the team listen, but the local command team have competing demands…”
The second theme was the lack of time and resources to implement ideas or
suggestions.
Three respondents cited this as the main problem and this is
discussed in more detail below.
4.2.5 – Summary
In conclusion, it is clear that response officers believe that local supervisors are
effective at using their personal knowledge, but in contrast local and force senior
command teams are not perceived to be effective at recognising the need to utilise
the knowledge of their staff. Secondly, senior leaders do not appear as receptive
to ideas in comparison to local managers. This divide can be explained by
considering the impact of the ‘psychological contract’ as discussed in the literature
review. Rechburg and Syed (2013) examine the tension between the employer
and employee as the former believes that they ‘own’ the information and should
share it, however, if the employee does not feel that they are treated fairly, justly
or honestly the knowledge management process may break down. The author
believes that this may be the case for WMP. The police service nationally has
faced significant budget cuts, staffing levels have reduced and many officers feel
that their service has been negatively affected. The results may be skewed by
this feeling of resentment and anger towards senior leaders; the people behind
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those decisions.
However, there is a lack of empirical data to support this
assertion and does highlight the need for further research.
4.3 Establish the factors that promote and encourage staff to share their
knowledge with WMP
4.3.1 – Organisational Culture
The literature review suggested that the most important factor that promotes and
encourages the sharing of knowledge was organisational culture.
The various
authors cited above agree that openness, trust and fairness are essential cultural
factors in working environments for effective knowledge management.
The
findings from the questionnaires (6 & 7) do not provide compelling evidence either
way as the results from both questions are split fairly evenly.
This inconclusive theme continued during the interviews.
With regard to
openness the only discernable pattern was one of trust within their own team but
not with the wider organisation.
One respondent commented on their local
leaders by saying:
“Senior leaders are too scared to say things for fear of losing their job”
With reference to trust, the majority of people did not trust each other. Further
probing identified that some of the respondents actually recognised that it was
their own personality that made them feel that way. Another person explained
that they work in a blame culture and can’t trust what the senior managers say.
Senior leaders were accused of trying to promote a culture of trust but failed to
deliver.
However, in contrast to the questions on openness and trust, many of
respondents spoke positively about WMP’s ability to be fair. Interestingly, one
person explained that years ago you would have been sacked if your sergeant
disliked you, but today WMP do treat people fairly.
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This may suggest that each respondents working environment is different and
local supervisors treat each of their teams differently. It also highlights the need
for leaders of all ranks to understand the importance of culture on knowledge
management as half of the respondents do not feel their working environment is
based on fairness, trust and openness.
Respondents do not feel that they work in an environment where they are
rewarded for good work (75%), which will clearly have a negative impact on the
‘psychological contract’, and culture that we have discussed above.
From the evidence presented above it would be fair to infer that WMP have not
created a working environment that promotes an effective knowledge
management process. Staff do not feel that they are rewarded for good work and
staff are divided on whether they work in open and trusting environments.
4.3.2 – The Psychological Contract
As the literature review explained a clear understanding of the psychological
contract theory and effective application of it is vital if WMP want to succeed in
this area.
Question 14 asked the respondents directly if they felt a moral
obligation to share their knowledge and 50% agreed or strongly agreed, only 11%
(5) disagreed. This data is good news for WMP as it demonstrates that response
officers have a desire to share information, but as some of findings above show
they do not always want to.
4.3.3 – Summary
The author argued in the literature review that less effective managers behave in
a more traditional way, placing greater emphasis on control, stability and
productivity than their more effective counterparts. Also, less effective managers
overlook the human element of leadership that may cause adverse consequences
for knowledge management. Using the data from the section immediately above,
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it is clear that response officers believe in their own direct supervisors but do not
feel the same regarding senior leaders. To ensure that WMP create a positive
psychological contract with staff, senior leaders must firstly understand the
significantly different views between local supervisors and themselves, and
secondly, invest time and energy to ensure that leaders generally recognise the
human element of personal relationships.
4.4 Establish The Factors That Discourage Or Prevent Staff From Sharing
Their Knowledge
4.4.1 – Stickiness Of Knowledge
Szulanski (2003) discusses the ‘stickiness of knowledge’ when it is transferred
between entities and stipulates that there are three aspects, the knowledge
source, the knowledge recipient and the context. When the source and recipient
work in similar working environments, with similar objectives, the level of
‘stickiness’ is low. The author was keen to test this and asked recipients to what
extent they felt different departments share knowledge and work together. A
significant number (77%) selected infrequently or never and only 20% chose to
answer frequently. The interviewees followed a similar pattern as the majority
were heavily critical of the lack of quality and timely information that is shared with
response officers. The team of officers responsible for disseminating intelligence
were singled out by most as the worst department for failing to provide the right
information, at the right time. One quote that summarises the general theme of
the interviews is:
“teams live in their own little bubble…”
4.4.2 – Sharing Of Knowledge
Response staff generally believe that different departments do not work together
and share information, which could be explained by Szulanski’s work. WMP
changed it’s organisational structure approximately four years ago and created a
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vast array of different teams that are managed and led by different senior leaders,
with different agenda’s. For example, the intelligence department and response
policing teams are governed by different leadership teams, who work in different
geographical areas. The former are mandated by central policies to disseminate
intelligence based on force priorities, rather than focusing on intelligence that the
local policing teams need. This leads to regular conflict, or as Szulanski states,
‘stickiness’.
The source (response officers) and the knowledge recipients
(intelligence officers) are working in different contexts, with different objectives,
which according to Szulanski is a recipe for failure.
4.4.3 – Four Main Barriers
Respondents were asked directly in the interviews what barriers existed that
prevented them from sharing their knowledge. The results were consistent and
the respondents felt strongly about four key barriers:
 Poor IT systems.
 A culture where senior leaders (local and force) ignore ideas and suggestions,
or they pretend to listen but fail to implement them.
 A culture where different departments fail to share their knowledge.
 Lack of time and resources to implement ideas or change things.
4.4.3.1 – Information Technology
IT systems were perceived to be the main barrier by respondents. They explained
how difficult each system is to use, all requiring different passwords that changed
at different points in time, resulting in the user having to remember numerous
passwords. The systems work independently of each other and do not have the
ability to share information/intelligence. The Intelligence Management System
(IMS) is used by officers to submit intelligence they gather in the course of their
duty but was heavily criticised by many of the respondents. This is a significant
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point as WMP rely on this system to elicit, assess and disseminate information
and is the platform around which they have designed their knowledge
management strategy.
The role of IT in knowledge management is the subject of much debate and was
discussed in more detail in the literature review above. It was the work of Panahi,
Watson and Partridge (2013) who concluded by saying that whilst the argument
for and against remains in question, scholars do agree using technology alone to
transfer tacit knowledge is insufficient and the emergence of social web tools
should be used to compliment a more diverse and coherent knowledge
management strategy. The findings from this research support their work and
needs to be reviewed and adapted by WMP to include a wider range of methods,
in particular social web tools.
4.4.3.2 – Ideas Not Listened To
The second and third barriers relate to a culture where respondents felt that they
were not listened to by senior leaders and an environment where different teams
fail to share information. The former was mentioned by all but one respondent as
a problem. One person explained that management have bigger things to worry
about than their thoughts.
Respondents also believed that our current
organisational structure did not promote information sharing.
One person
elaborated by stating that sharing information does not promote your own interest,
and is the reason why departments do not work together. This comment is
supported by academics such as Baalen, Bloemhof-Ruwaard and van Heck
(2005: 7) who said that people on the source side may be reluctant to share the
information because they fear a loss of control of that information or insufficient
reward or even that they do not understand the importance of that information to
the receiver. The author presented the work of Nonaka, Toyama and Konno
(2000: 14) who stated that humans must transcend their own views and
boundaries. Interaction amongst individuals, or between individuals, and their
environment is paramount. This paper argued in the literature review that creating
the right working culture was the single most important factor that promoted an
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effective knowledge management strategy. These findings are entirely congruent
with that assertion.
4.4.3.3 – Time and Resources
Finally, time and resources was cited by half of the interviewees as another
barrier. The questionnaire data resulted in an even split of negative and positive
responses. With resources and budgets reducing many felt they did not have the
time to implement ideas, even if they were viable and potentially effective.
However, all response teams have approximately 8 training days each year where
they are taken away from front line duties. The author asked respondents to
clarify if they could utilise these days for such activities and they all agreed that it
was feasible. The even split in responses to the questionnaires and interviews
could be explained by the police areas that they operate in and the quality of
supervisors.
It is accepted that some areas are busier than others and therefore
provide less scope for transferring knowledge. It is also clear from this study that
supervisors leadership style vary in style and effectiveness.
4.4.4 – Formalised Rules And Procedures
We discussed above the impact of formalised rules and procedures on knowledge
transfer and in particular Wang, Su and Yang (2011: 366-367). They believe that
power distance has the most significant negative effect. Organisations with high
power distance implement stringent control policies and procedures that govern
the behaviour of individuals, teams and departments.
They inhibit creative
activities such as knowledge creation. Respondents were asked (Q12) to what
extent they believed WMP had formalised procedures and rules for obtaining and
managing information and the results are inconclusive.
Approximately 43%
selected neither agree or disagree and the remaining answers were fairly evenly
split. Based on these findings it is not possible to make an inference either way.
The author would once again question if the respondents understood the question
or they were not sure of the answer and chose the neutral option.
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Chapter 5
Conclusions and
Recommendations
__________________________
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5.1 – Conclusions
As the competition intensifies and the pace of change accelerates companies
need to renew themselves in two ways: exploiting existing competencies and
exploring new ones (Jansen, Bosch and Volberda, 2006: 3). WMP face their own
challenge to continue to reduce crime with reduced budgets and fewer resources.
There has never been a greater need to use the tacit knowledge of staff to improve
efficiency and the quality of service that they provide.
This paper aimed to establish how effective WMP are at using the tacit knowledge
of their front line staff. Whilst the author accepts that a small-scale research
project such as this is limited in scope due to the time, resources and finances
available, there are compelling themes that have come to the fore. Similarly, this
research has highlighted areas for further research that are discussed in detail
below (4.4).
5.1.1 – Extent That Response Officers Feel That Their Knowledge Is Used
By WMP
The first objective was to establish the extent that response officers felt that their
own knowledge is used by WMP. A high proportion of the responses from the
questionnaires and interviews did not believe that WMP were effective at using
their knowledge but interestingly one of the interviewees believed that the Deputy
Chief Constable trys but it gets lost in translation. However, this research has
identified an anomaly that requires further investigation and is outside the scope
of this paper. A compellingly high proportion of respondents (89%) indicated that
their direct supervisors always or sometimes use their knowledge. The interviews
supported this finding and all nine people spoke positively regarding their
supervisor’s ability to garner their experience and knowledge.
The unanswered question is why frontline staff are critical of WMP as a whole,
but are actually very complimentary of local managers who are servants to WMP?
The author would suggest that this may be linked to the psychological contract
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theory that is presented in section 2.1.5. Do frontline staff feel aggrieved with
senior leaders who have cut budgets and resources amid national pressure to
improve efficiency. These are assertions that are not supported in the paper but
do require further research to understand why.
The question on the range of methods employed by WMP to illicit knowledge
created an even split of negative and positive responses. However, the quality of
the IT systems employed by WMP was criticised by nearly all of the respondents,
clearly highlighting the need for a complete review of the process. Social media
is accepted by many as an effective tool to gather and analyse such information.
The majority of the respondents did not feel that their suggestions were listened
to. One person believed that ‘higher ranks’ prevented good ideas, and another
believed that senior leaders had too many competing demands that prevented
them from focusing on this area of business.
In conclusion it is clear that staff generally do not feel that WMP are effective at
using the knowledge of frontline staff, but they do recognise the positive
contribution of local managers.
5.1.2 – Factors That Promote And Encourage Staff To Share Their
Knowledge
It is absolutely clear from the literature review that creating the right organisational
culture is the key factor that will promote the successful transfer of tacit
knowledge. Trust, openness and fairness are identified as the key factors. It was
clear from the responses that staff generally trusted their team but not the wider
organisation, causing an even split of positive and negative responses. One
response stated that they work in a blame culture. Interestingly, the majority of
people believed that WMP treated staff fairly. Senior leaders need to address this
gap in confidence that front line staff feel and need to devise a communications
strategy to address this negative culture.
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Linked to organisational culture is rewarding staff for good work. When staff feel
that they are being recognised for their work, they are more likely to share their
ideas. Approximately 75% of the respondents did not feel that they operated in
such a culture. This may lead to response officers to feel unmotivated and will
therefore have a detrimental impact on the psychological contract between WMP
and response officers.
The psychological contract between employee and employer is linked to
organisational culture and where the relationship is based on trust, fairness and
openness staff are likely to share their knowledge. Respondents were asked if
they felt a moral obligation to share their knowledge. Positively for WMP only
11% (5) answered negatively, therefore demonstrating that generally staff do want
to share their knowledge. This is really positive news for WMP.
Organisational structure was mentioned by many scholars as an important factor
but has not been included in the research. It could be an opportunity for further
research.
In conclusion, the literature review highlighted organisational culture, the
psychological contract and organisational structure as the main factors. This
research supports those findings and is the platform that any knowledge
management programme must be built upon.
5.1.3 – Factors That Discourage Or Prevent Staff From Sharing Knowledge
The literature review identified the ‘stickiness’ of knowledge as a significant
barrier. The author was keen to test this theory and asked respondents to identify
the extent that different departments share knowledge. A significant number
(77%) said infrequently or never. The interviews followed a similar theme as the
majority were heavily critical of inter team working. They were particularly critical
of the intelligence department as they fail to provide the right information, at the
right time. One quote summarised the strength of feeling by saying that teams
live in their own little bubble. The author would suggest that a recent change in
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organisational structure has led to an increase in the number of teams that have
different objectives and priorities. This causes a high level of ‘stickiness’ that
Szulanski (2003) cites as a significant barrier.
The interviewee’s were asked to identify barriers and the answers can be themed
into four areas:
 Poor IT systems.
 A culture where senior leaders (local and force) ignore ideas and suggestions,
or they pretend to listen but fail to implement them.
 A culture where different departments fail to share their knowledge.
 Lack of time and resources to implement ideas or change things.
This paper has already discussed the importance of culture so it will not delve any
deeper in that area.
The role of IT was mentioned by nearly all of the respondents during the interviews
and could be the main barrier. They state that the systems do not work in unison,
they are difficult to use and not fit for purpose. This would have been the top
priority for the force but the author is aware that WMP have just entered into a
landmark partnership with an external partner (Accenture) to improve a range of
issues, most notably IT. This demonstrates that WMP are cognisant of the issue
and have taken a brave decision to use the skills of the private sector.
Finally, time and resources were quoted as a significant barrier. However, the
author found this argument difficult to accept because each of the response teams
have a training day every 4-6 weeks where they are removed from frontline duties
for training purposes. This is the opportunity for WMP to use their knowledge and
generate ideas for improvements to their service.
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In conclusion the barriers identified in the literature review were identified in this
research: culture, psychological contract, IT, time/resources, inter department
cohesion, formalised rules and procedures for knowledge transfer.
5.2 – Practical Recommendations
There are four general themes that the following recommendations can be
categorised into and each offer a variety of options for WMP or any other Police
force may consider. They are:
 Information Technology
 Training and Development
 Communications Strategy
5.2.1 – Information Technology
Firstly, WMP need a comprehensive review of the range and type of methods they
utilise. Successful knowledge transfer programmes employ a diverse range of
methods that cater for different personalities. WMP must involve response staff in
that developmental programme as they are the practitioners.
Secondly, the empirical evidence above highlighted the need to use social web
based tools in any IT programme. WMP must use the experience of the private
industry to develop such methods.
Thirdly, the Intelligent Management System (IMS) is the platform on which all
intelligent/information is shared across the force, however, it was heavily criticised
and needs to be re-developed or changed.
Fourthly, it was clear from the research that a purely IT based approach to illicit
knowledge is not effective. WMP should consider employing an officer in each of
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the ten intelligence departments who acts as the gatekeeper for all
information/intelligence.
This person should encourage staff to expunge
information verbally to them and then convert it into useable intelligence on their
behalf. Existing procedures are slow, bureaucratic and difficult to use, however,
that human element will encourage a much greater exchange of information.
5.2.2 – Training And Development
WMP have developed continuous professional training days through their
leadership centre for frontline supervisors. The author recommends that one of
these training days should focus on the theory presented in this paper to equip
front line supervisors with the latest theory practice. Organisational culture and
the psychological contract should form the bedrock of any theory-based learning.
Secondly, response officers have training days built into their shift pattern and
should be used more effectively by the Learning and Development Department to
illicit the thoughts and opinions of the front line practitioners. This will ensure that
they are afforded the time and space to transfer their knowledge. They have been
referred to as action learning sets. Staff are given a key business issue and asked
to develop options to improve it. They are a proven and successful tactic.
5.2.3 – Communications Strategy
The Chief officer and his senior colleagues were heavily criticised by all
respondents, but there were inconsistencies with some of their opinions. The
anomaly mentioned in 3.2.1 needs to be addressed through clearer and more
direct marketing. It is feasible that the senior leaders actually believe in the
concept of knowledge management but rely too much on the traditional rank
structure to convey their messages. The author suggests they address front line
officers by creating a ‘videobox’ message that is personalised to response
officers.
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They can and should use the full range of social web methods to convey their
messaging to the whole force and should include: twitter; facebook; intranet;
internet.
Officers should be given the platform to suggest ideas and improvements in a
safe environment where all contributions are welcome. Responses should be
anonymous unless the member of staff chooses otherwise. A simple web based
portal that can be accessed by all staff, from any computer, at any time, would be
an excellent starting point.
5.3 – Limitations Of This Research
As was stated in the methodology section the author was limited by time,
resources and logistics. WMP is a large force in terms of both geography and
total number of staff, it was logistically impossible to visit every response team
across all ten policing areas. If time and resources were not a barrier the author
would suggest including the remaining five police areas in the sample which would
ensure a fair and equal representation across the force.
Secondly, the author has not received any formal training to design and deliver
interviews. There was a strong reliance on academic literature to guide the
process and limit any potential researcher bias. However as discussed at 3.3.2.2
it is accepted by many researchers that interviews have a high degree of bias and
subjectivity based on the researchers own views and opinions. Future studies
may utilise a range of skilled interviewers.
The author would suggest that respondents may be more honest and open with
a civilian researcher as opposed to a more senior ranking officer that the author
is. This was evident during the very first interview when the interviewee as clearly
not being honest. The interview was temporarily suspended and the Coventry
University Code of Ethics was reaffirmed to the respondent. It had the desired
effect and that person was more liberal and forthcoming in their views. It is
important to employ independent researchers for future studies.
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This study focused solely on response policing officers and is therefore limited in
its application to the wider police service. It did not include police staff and cannot
be applied to a vast majority of roles or departments where police staff operate.
This study may provide useful guidance for response officers but would need
expanding to incorporate other departments in further research studies if a more
generalised hypothesis was required.
WMP is the second largest police force in the country with approximately 10,000
members of staff. Each of the ten policing units is led by a senior leader who may
have contrasting and conflicting views on knowledge management strategies. It
is conceivable that the mixed views in some of the questions can be attributed to
the policing style of that police area. Each LPU senior leadership team may have
different and conflicting views on knowledge management and therefore response
staff will be treated differently. This paper did not have the capacity to identify the
impact of such anomalies.
5.4 - Future Research Opportunities
This study highlighted an interesting anomaly because respondents criticised the
senior leaders but were highly complimentary of first and second line managers.
The author proposed that this may be due to the theory surrounding the
‘psychological contract’ between response staff and senior managers. The author
is keen to posit that this assertion is not based on empirical data and therefore
provides an interesting gap in this research.
Organisational structure was suggested by many scholars as a significant factor
that can promote and prevent successful knowledge transfer processes. The
author intentionally avoided questioning respondents on this topic because the
respondents may not have the knowledge to answer such questions. Senior
leaders need to be questioned and may be considered and investigated in future
studies.
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Finally, the literature review in chapter 2 suggested that organisational culture has
the most impact on knowledge management.
The findings from this study are
consistent with that assertion. There is an exciting opportunity for researchers to
focus solely on how WMP could create and sustain a culture that encourages and
supports a successful knowledge management processes.
WORD COUNT: 13, 921
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Chapter 6
Appendix
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6.1 - The Questionnaire
Thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire. Please tick the most
appropriate answer using the boxes provided. Once complete, return to Inspector Allan
Green at Solihull Police Station.
1) To what extent do you agree that West Midlands Police (WMP) are an organisation
who recognise the importance of utilising the personal knowledge of it’s frontline
staff to improve performance.
Strongly agree
Agree
Neither agree or disagree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
2) Organisations can employ a range of tactics to extract information from staff, some
of which include IT systems, best practice forums, staff surveys; to what extent do
you feel that the range of methods used by WMP are effective at extracting your
personal knowledge?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neither agree or disagree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
3) To what extent do feel that your supervisor uses your personal knowledge to
improve the quality of service WMP provide?
Always
Sometimes
Not sure
Infrequently
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Never
4) To what extent do you feel that you are given the time and space to transfer your
knowledge, whether this is in person or on a police system?
Always
Sometimes
Not sure
Infrequently
Never
5) To what extent do you agree that WMP operate in a culture where you are
rewarded for good work?
Always
Sometimes
Not sure
Infrequently
Never
6) To what extent do you feel that you operate in an environment that is based on
openness?
Always
Sometimes
Not sure
Infrequently
Never
7) To what extent do you feel that you operate in an environment that is based on
mutual trust and fairness?
Always
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Sometimes
Not sure
Infrequently
Never
8) How effective do you feel WMP are at translating the information you provide
into useful intelligence/information?
Very Effective
Effective
Neither effective or ineffective
Ineffective
Very ineffective
9) To what extent do you feel that different departments in WMP share their
knowledge?
Always
Sometimes
Not sure
Infrequently
Never
10) To what extent do you feel that you are encouraged to share knowledge within
your team?
Always
Sometimes
Not sure
Infrequently
Never
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11) To what extent do you feel that you are encouraged to share your knowledge with
colleagues outside of your team?
Always
Sometimes
Not sure
Infrequently
Never
12) To what extent do you feel that WMP have formalised procedures and rules for
obtaining and managing information from frontline staff?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neither agree or disagree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
13) To what extent do you feel that any suggestions you make are listened to?
Always
Sometimes
Not sure
Infrequently
Never
14) To what extent do you feel that as a police officer you are morally obliged to share
your tacit knowledge for the benefit of the organisation, and therefore the public?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neither agree or disagree
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Disagree
Strongly disagree
15) Please use the space provided below to add any other comments that you feel are
relevant for this research? Once again, thank you for your assistance.
6.2 – The Interview Questions Template
1) Do you feel that West Midlands Police (WMP) are an organisation who
recognise the importance of utilising the personal knowledge of it’s frontline
staff to improve performance. Please expand on your answer?
2) Do you feel that you are given the time and space to transfer your
knowledge. This can include recording information on Police IT systems;
meetings where you are encouraged to share best practice; or staff
feedback surveys. Please explain your answer?
3) I’d like to discuss the impact of organisational culture on knowledge
management. Can you explain how prevalent the following themes are in
your working environment:
Openness;
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Mutual trust;
Fairness;
4) To what extent do you feel that different departments in WMP share their
knowledge? What are the reasons for this?
5) To what extent do you feel that you are encouraged to share knowledge
within your team? Do you think that you operate in a culture where teams
are encouraged to share information
6) To what extent do you feel that any suggestions you make are listened to?
Why is this?
7) What barriers exist that prevent or deter you from sharing your personal
knowledge ?
6.3 – The Participant Information Sheet
1. Information about the project/purpose of the project
The author of this survey is Allan Green, a response inspector from Solihull LPU,
who has worked the majority of his 15-year career in frontline policing
(response and neighbourhood). He is completing a masters degree in Managing
and Leading People at Coventry University and is required to complete a
dissertation (research project) in the next few months. His research topic is
establishing how effective WMP are at using the knowledge of response officers
to improve performance. He would be very grateful if you would spend 5-10
minutes to complete the attached questionnaire.
2. Why have I been chosen?
Five different response teams have been chosen, from five LPU’s. As a member
of that response team you have been asked to participate. You have not been
specifically selected, merely chosen at random. This is intentional to improve
the creditability of the results.
3. Do I have to take part?
No. This is voluntary and your decision to participate is kept confidential. The
only person who will know is the author and he is subjected to stringent
confidentiality regulations by Coventry University. If you do participate only he
will read your response and under no condition will he disclose details to
anyone in WMP.
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4. What do I have to do?
Just complete the survey (or participate in an interview if asked) honestly and
return it in a sealed envelope to Insp Allan Green on Response Team C at
Solihull Police Station or hand him the sealed envelope in person.
5. What are the risks associated with this project?
The only potential risk to you would be if your response was disclosed to
another WMP employee. As stated above, the author is subjected to stringent
academic disclosure regulations and under no circumstance will your response
be disclosed to anyone in WMP and in only in unique circumstances would a
senior academic at Coventry University wish to view your response. If the latter
circumstance did occur that person is bound by the same confidentiality
regulations as the author.
6. What are the benefits of taking part?
The final anonymised report will be published later in the year and will include a
series of recommendations to improve the way in which WMP utilise the
knowledge of response officers. The senior command team may, or may not,
implement those changes.
7. Withdrawal options
You can withdraw at any point, no questions asked. All you need to do is
contact Inspector Allan Green and state your intention to withdraw your
support. This must be completed before the 31st of July. Your response will be
destroyed in a shredder.
8. Data protection & confidentiality
As stated in point number 3 above the author is subjected to stringent
regulations on data protection and confidentiality. Coventry University have a
detailed policy on this topic and all students are compelled to follow it. Your
response is not disclosed to any person within WMP and only in exceptional
circumstances will a senior academic from Coventry University be privy to your
response. Your response is coded and anonymised at source and kept in a
secure folder. When the final report is published your response will be
destroyed.
9. What if things go wrong? Who to complain to
Coventry University has a strict ethical protocol for research projects such as
this. They have a dedicated panel of senior managers at the University who you
can complain to. Please contact either Stephen Clapcott (email:
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aa4578@coventry.ac.uk) or Michael McFadden (email:
edu117@coventry.ac.uk) at the University.
10. Who has reviewed this study?
The final report will be reviewed and marked by senior academics at the
University but it will be available to you if you would like to read it
11. Further information/Key contact details
The author is Inspector 5124 Allan Green who works on Response Team C at
Solihull. His email is a.j.green@west-midlands.pnn.police.uk. He can be
contacted on 7921 6941.
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Chapter 7
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