‫‪WRITING‬‬
‫مرکز مطالعات و توسعه آموزش علوم پزشکی‬
1. Why Write
1.1. Writing to Work
With computers now a part of almost every job, word
processing and e-mailing are essential skills.
Getting and keeping a job these days usually involves good
writing skills.
You will need writing in your job in these forms:
1. Letters of application and Resume
2. Memos and Reports (office works)
3. Letters
4. Records and Orders (health-care professional)
5. Legal Briefs (lawyer)
1.2. Writing to Learn
All the students need to know writing
techniques to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Take Notes
Write Essays & Reports
Answer Examination Questions
Be able to write letters & E-mails
1.3. Writing to Communicate
All of us need writing to be able to communicate
using:
1. Email
2. Text Messages (SMS language or textese )
3. Personal Letter
2. The Writing Process
No two writers approach writing in exactly
the same way. But they do tend to follow a
series of actions that look something like this:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Exploring Ideas
Prewriting
Organizing
Writing a First Draft
Revising the Draft
Producing the Final Copy
2.1. Step 1: Exploring Ideas
Remember that writing is like speech, and speaking
includes discovering ideas as you say them. This is the first
step of writing.
SO
Before you sit down to write, let your mind speak freely.
When inspiration happens, capture it by writing on
what ever you can:
Napkins, Piece of paper, back of your hand.
In order to have your exploration systematic
you need to bare three items in your mind:
1. Something to say
2. Reason for saying
3. Someone to say it to
So
Never forget the three fundamental
questions:
1. What is my subject?
2. What is my purpose?
3. Who is my audience?
2.1.1. Your Subject
While choosing your subjects keep these
issues in mind:
1. Choose the most interesting subjects to your
audience
2. Choose the subjects about which you care
3. Choose the subjects about which you know
You must select and then narrow your subject
Example:
Suppose you are asked to describe a job you know well.
Ask yourelf thgese questions:
1. What jobs have I done or do now?
2. What do I know about these jobs?
3. Which jobs (or parts of one job) do I feel strongly about?
What do I hate? What parts make me angry or happy?
4. What tools or materials do I use in my job?
5. How do I perform each task?
6. Which tasks are most interesting or boring?
7. What examples or little stories best illustrate these
points?
2.1.2. Your Purpose
What do you want to do with your writing?
1.
2.
3.
4.
You can:
Inform (your classmates about some procedures at your
job)
Persuade (your classmates that they should find or avoid
a job like you)
Entertain ( your classmates with examples of odd
incidents you have experienced at your job)
All these three
Exercise: Read each sentence and write the purpose of the
paragraph. Then choose one of the sentences and revise it so that it
begins a different paragraph.
1. Before November 18, 1883, when the railroads
instituted the Standard Time and time zones, the
time of day varied from city to city and town to
town………………
2. There must be better ways to resolve differences than
going to war……............
3. The history behind the naming of months of the
calendar is fascinating………….
4. The Roman emperors Julius and Augustus Caesar
each added a month to the year, and named them ,of
course, after themselves………………
2.1.3. Your Audiance
Who is your audience?
The answer to this question may help you:
1. Determine the content of your writing
2. Determine the purpose of your writing
3. The amount of needed explanation
4. The amount of needed evidence to persuade
•
Exercise: For each of the following topic, list two or
three points you would include if your were writing
to a different audiences specified.
• Example: Topic: The benefits of controlled diets
Audience: Overweight adults: better health, better
appearance, feeling of well being
1.Topic: The role of personal web sites on the internet
like My Space
Audience: People between the age of 12-30
Audience: People between the age of 40-70
2. Topic: The reasons for requiring helmets for
motorcycle riders
Audience: Riders of motorcycles
Audience: Motor cycle manufacturers
Exercise: Read the text and answer questions
1. What’s the writer’s main purpose: to inform, persuade
or entertain? Or is it a combination of these purposes?
2. Who’s the audience for this article? Would you expect
to find it in a college textbook, a newspaper or a
popular magazine? Write your reasons.
3. What point or points is the writer making?
4. What’s the writer’s attitude toward his son? Does he
have more than one attitude? How do you know?
2.2. Step 2: Prewriting
The second step of writing process involves
capturing your thoughts
on a piece of paper or on the computer screen.
This step is called
prewriting
in which you jot down whatever comes to your mind without
any worrying about spelling or punctuation.
There are three techniques regarding this step
1. Brainstorming
2. Clustering
3. Freewriting
2.2.1. Brainstorming
One way to capture your thoughts is by
Brainstorming
Or listing thoughts as they come to you
Here is an example from a student who has been asked to
describe a job:
2.2.2. Clustering
In this technique you put your topic in a circle in the
middle of the page and then add related ideas as they
occur to you.
These related ideas are called
Branches
In the following example the topic is a job description
my job
delivering pizza
2.2.3. Freewriting
In this technique you simply start writing about your
topic without worrying about sentence structure,
spelling, logic, and grammar.
Here the only difference is that your pieces of
information is not in the form of single words but
sentences.
Use abbreviations and shortcuts so you can get your
ideas down fast.
Don’t think of your freewriting as disorganized. Just let
your ideas flow.
You can expand it, change it or omit some parts
Here we have the same example of a job description
2.3. Step 3: Organizing
Now that you captured your ideas you can select from and
organize them:
• Underline or highlight the most promising ideas in your
brainstorming list. Then rewrite the list. You can add
more ideas to your list.
• Choose the part of clustering diagram that seems most
promising. You can even do a second clustering diagram.
• Highlight the most promising parts of your freewriting.
You can narrow your subject or add more details.
2.3.1. Selecting
Now you have narrowed your focus
And Generate more ideas
The next step is to choose one of those ideas that fits your purpose
and audience.
Example:
Your topic is the “pizza delivery as a job”.
Your Purpose is to entertain who have part time job and to show
that your job is not that bad.
So
You will keep the most humorous information: Fuzzy Ms. Fritzy,
Wobbly Wally, and the Fraternity boys
You will omit the unimportant parts such as the ones about your cell
phone, and working hours
2.3.2. Outlining
. To write an outline, follow these guidelines.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Choose a topic
Determine the larger purpose of your work
Gather supporting materials
Decide how to generally order your supporting evidence so that it supports
your larger purpose
Decide whether to write a topic outline or a sentence outline.
Identify your main categories.
Think of at least two points for each category.
Expand upon your points with sub-points if necessary.
Example
After deciding on the focus of the customers, the pizza
delivery writer can make a rough outline:
2.4. Step 4: Writing a First Draft
In the prewriting stage you have:
1. Select your best ideas
2. Arrange them in some reasonable order
Now
Begin writing your first draft and:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Don’t worry about writing something perfect.
Write fast as if speaking your words aloud.
Leave wide margins.
If new ideas occur to you write them on the margin.
Double-space so there will be enough room for changes
Use only one side of the paper so you can cut and paste the
changes.
7. Tape or staple additions where you want them to go.
8. Say something loud before you write it.
9. Circle the words you think you misspelled or will want to
change later
Example: Here is the example of description pizza delivery as
job
2.5. Step 5: Revising the Draft
After completing your first draft, set it aside.
Give yourself a chance to see it with fresh eyes later.
It’s hard to think about changing and correcting your
work immediately after you finish a draft.
You tend to read what you think you said, not what’s
actually on the paper.
2.5.1. Reviewing
Now go back to what you have written , read it carefully.
• Study its organization, word choice, and details.
• You will find something to cut and something to add.
• Rearrange sections, rephrase sentences, and improve
your word choice.
• Look at the words you circle earlier and correct the
misspellings.
• Make notes in the margin and use arrows to show the
place they will be added.
Example: Here is our old example’s reviewing
2.5.2. Reading aloud
• Now read your work aloud. Listen hard. You’ll probably
hear mistakes to correct and discover improvements to
make.
• Then read your work again , perhaps to another
person, and repeat the process until you’re satisfied
that your writing is interesting and clear.
2.5.3.Predicting
Remember
Readers don’t merely receive information;
they actively attempt to find meaning for themselves.
They predict what will follow from your opening sentences
and then perhaps adjust their predictions as they read on.
Here is how to do it:
• Read the first sentence or two
• Stop and think about what your readers would expect to
follow.
• Decide if the rest of the paragraph satisfies those
predictions.
• Make notes on what you add, remove, or shift to satisfy
your reader’s expectations.
2.6. Step 6: Producing the Final Copy
Once you’re reasonably satisfied with you writing, you can
begin the final copy.
Prepare it according to the guidelines of your instructor.
Before finishing pay attention to the details you have
ignored
2.6.1. Editing
• Examine and look for your mistakes carefully.
• Check the misspelled or repeated words.
• Look for grammatical errors, missing word endings,
incomplete sentences, and incorrect punctuation.
• Read the pare more than once.
• Copy it again and again including the new changes.
2.6.2. Proofreading
• Proofreading means carefully examining the last copy
again, and comparing it with previous ones.
• Read the paper slowly.
• Place a ruler under each line to focus your eyes.
• Read the paper aloud.
Example: Here is the pizza delivery example’s final copy.
3.Sentence
3.1. Building & Repairing Sentences
3.1.1. What is a Sentence?
A sentence is the basic unit of expression.
Every sentence must make a complete statement.
Subject (Who or
What the statement
is about)
Sentence
Verb (What the
subject does or is)
Most often the subject comes first and the verb follows
the subject. Examples:
Subject
Verb
President Abraham Lincoln
loved
He
saved
The turkey
was
This group of words that can express a complete
proposition is called a clause.
As you can see the subject and the verb of a sentence don’t
complete the statement. That usually requires additional
words that follow the verb:
Subject
verb
President Abraham
Lincoln
He
The turkey
Loved
Saved
was
Remainder of the
clause
Animals.
A turkey’s life.
A gift for Christmas
dinner.
This combination of Subject + verb + completion of the
statement is called an independent clause.
An independent clause can stand as a complete sentence.
3.1.1.1. Identifying Subjects
The best way to identify the subject and verb is to look
for both at the same time.
The subject:
• Tells who or what the clause makes a statement
about.
• Usually appears at the beginning of the statement
before the verb.
• Can be a proper noun, subject pronoun, common
noun, or gerund.
Exercise: Underline the subjects in each sentence.
1. Tad Lincoln was only ten years old in 1863.
2. He adored the turkey and named it Jack.
3. The bird soon followed Tad around the White House
grounds.
4. Tad and his father agreed not to kill the animal.
5. Pardoning the White House turkey has since become
an annual tradition for presidents.
3.1.1.2. Identifying Verbs
The verb:
• Says what the subject does or is.
• Usually has a tense = indicating if the verb discusses
the past, present, or future.
• Usually follows the subject and begins a statement
about the subject.
• May contain more than one word.
Example: Circle the verbs in the following sentences.
1. Lincoln was controversial throughout his presidency.
2. By today’s standards, people might even consider Lincoln as
racist.
3. Lincoln didn’t free the slaves at the beginning of the Civil War
for a simple reason.
4. He wanted to bring the South back into the Union quickly.
5. However like other great presidents, he grew in office and
took courageous positions.
6. In the fall of 1862, he drafted the Emancipation
Proclamation, freeing the slaves in the areas still in rebellion
as of January1, 1863.
3.1.2. Coordination
• If you want to keep your readers interested, you
need to create some variety in your sentences.
• Sentence variety comes largely from joining
sentences.
• One way to add sentences is to add words that
join them.
and I
(two people, or subjects)
• John
A joining
word is called conjunction
.
• Tripped
Notice
connect
the following
or fellhow conjunctions(two
action verbs)
pairs of words:
A fat yet athletic man
(two adjectives)
Moved quickly but carefully
( two adverbs)
One kind of conjunction is called
coordinating conjunction.
As you can see in these examples each pair of word
is grammatically equal or coordinate.
So
Coordinating conjunctions are the ones that can
join grammatically equal structures.
The coordinating conjunctions are seven:
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
َ As coordinating conjunctions can join two
grammatically equal structures, they can connect two
sentences. Remember that every sentence must have at
least one independent clause (a subject and a verb that can
stand alone). In this case you create a single sentence with
two independent clauses. This single sentence is called
compound sentence.
Examples:
1. Male babies often wear blue, and female babies were
pink.
2. Years ago, people wanted to protect their infant boys
from evil spirits, so they dressed the boys in blue.
3. People associated blue with good spirits, for those
spirits live in the blue sky.
4. Of course, people cared about their female children, yet
people did not care enough to dress them in blue.
Coordinating conjunctions do not connect two structure
without any additional impact. They also explain the logical
relationship between the two clauses:
Conjun
ction
Purpose
Example
for
Shows a reason (the second clause gives a He is gambling with his health, for
reason for the first)
he has been smoking far too long.
and
Shows addition
They gamble, and they smoke.
nor
Shows a negative alternative (It is the
negative form of or and it must contain a
negative word such as not)
They do not gamble nor do they
smoke.
but
Shows contrast
They gamble, but they don't smoke.
or
Shows and alternative or choice
Every day they gamble or they
smoke.
yet
Shows an unexpected contrast (It is
similar in meaning to although)
They gamble, yet they don't smoke.
so
Shows a result (the first clause results in
the second.)
He gambled well last night so he
smoked a cigar to celebrate.
Punctuation rules say you do not need a comma for all
coordinating conjunctions:
Place a comma before the coordinating conjunction that joins
independent clauses.
Don not use a comma before coordinating conjunctions that
merely join two words
Example:
• Tom likes ice cream, but he likes pizza better.
• Tom likes ice cream and pizza.
Exercise: Join each of the following pairs of sentences with
one coordinating conjunction
1. It was August 3, 1877. A stagecoach was traveling across California.
2. A man with a flour sack over his head stopped the coach. He pointed
the rifle at the drivers.
3. The man told them to throw their cash box. He did not harm anyone.
4. Later someone found the box. That person was surprised.
5. The box contained an angry poem signed by “Black Bart". It also
contained a note of apology saying,” Driver, give my respects to your
friend , the other driver”.
6. Black Bart continued robbing. He continued to leave humorous verses.
7. The stagecoach company was not amused. It offered a reward of 800$
for his capture.
8. On Bart’s last hold up, someone shot and wounded him. He tried to
stop bleeding with a handkerchief that he left behind.
9. Detectives learned that Black Bart’s real name by tracing the laundry
mark on the handkerchief. The robber might have gone free.
10.He was Charles E. Bolton and elderly gentleman
with a mustache, gold-headed cane, and fin
clothes. He finally confessed to his crimes.
11.He also said,” I never robbed a passenger. I never
treated a human being badly.” (use nor, and change
the wording of the second paragraph)
12. He was supposed to serve a long term in prison,
His behavior was so gentlemanly that he was
released four years later.
3.1.3. Subordination
Look at the following sentence:
I came home from work, and I found an eight-foot cobra
snake in my living room.
In this sentence two equal structure have been joined by a
coordinating conjunction. Do you think the idea in both
structures are also equal?
These ideas shouldn’t be joined by and. They need to be
joined in a way that expresses their inequality. Here are two
possibilities:
• When I came home from work, I found an eight-foot
cobra snake in my living room.
• After coming home from work, I found and eight-foot
cobra snake in my living room.
Now the less important idea is subordinate to the more
important one. This process is called subordination.
Subordination creates a kind of clause called
dependent clause.
A dependent clause is a kind of clause which cannot stand
alone as a separate sentence. Because its meaning is not
complete without an independent clause. A dependent
clause gives us the less important information than the
independent clause.
Example:
When Albert sits down for dinner, he can eat seven pizzas.
The joining word when subordinates the clause it
introduces. Therefore, we call it a subordinating
conjunction.
Exercise: Each sentence contains a dependent clause, an independent clause
and a subordinating conjunction. Label them with DC, IC, and SC.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
In 1936,when the Olympic Games begin in Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler wanted them to
prove his theories of Aryan (white) superiority.
However after a twenty-two-year-old African-American named James Cleveland
Owens had competed in the track-and field events, the young man ripped those
theories to pieces.
At the beginning of track-and-field events, Owens felt tense because a German had
won a gold medal the day before and received Hitler’s enthusiastic congratulations.
But later the same day, when one of the African-American athletes won a gold medal,
Hitler did not shake his hand but hurried out of the stadium.
Although Hitler claimed he left to escape a light drizzle, the meaning of German
dictator’s action was obvious.
If Hitler felt bad about a black man winning a medal, Owens would soon make him
feel much worse.
When the track-and-field events were over, Owen had won four gold medals,
breaking or equaling nine Olympic records
(When Conjunctions)
After
As
As soon as
Before
Once
Since
Until
When
While
After I lost,………………
As I was walking down the street,…………..
As soon as you finish,………………
Before the lights go out,………………..
Once you have finished the cleaning,(means after)
Since I made my first billion dollar,………………….
Until the sun sets,…………………
When the semester is over,…………….
While the music was playing,…………..
(Why Conjunctions)
Because
Since
Because you are improving your writing………..
Since the water in the lake is o warm,………
(Where Conjunctions)
Where
Wherever
Where there is smoke,…………
Wherever you can find a job,………..
(Contrasting Conjunctions)
Although
Even though
Whereas
Although you look honest,………………………
Even though the test was difficult,……………….
Whereas many people thought the world was flat,….
(Conditional Conjunctions)
If
Unless
If I have the opportunity,……………….
Unless he stops playing the music loudly
• Punctuation rules say that you need a comma after the
dependent clause at the beginning of a sentence.
Example:
When the alarm clock rings in the morning, I put the pillow
over my head.
• You shouldn't use a comma before a dependent clause at
the end of a sentence(but you may use a comma before a
long clause beginning with the words unless, although, or
since).
Example:
I put the pillow over my head when the alarm clock rings in
the morning.
I always get to work on time, although my hair may not be
combed or my shirt buttoned.
Exercise: Read the sentences and match each pair with
appropriate subordinating conjunction.
1. No one was surprised at Jesse Owen’s success in the 1936 Olympics.
He had done something even more remarkable a year earlier.
2. He competed in the Big Ten championship on May 25, 1935. He had
the greatest day in the history of modern track competition.
3. He didn’t think he would even be able to participate. He has strained
his back a few weeks earlier.
4. He could not even jog at the warm-up before the meet. He decided to
compete in the 100-yard dash.
5. He got off to a perfect start. He finished the dash in 9.4 seconds,
matching the world record.
6. His coach advised Owen to take only a single long jump. He leaped
almost 27 feet and beat the world record by nearly a half foot.
7. Owens won the 200-yard dash in 20.3 seconds. He set another world
record.
8. Owens finished the 220-yard low hurdle in 22.6 seconds. He broke an
11-year-old world record.
9. Owens completed four events in forty-five minutes. He set three world
records and tied another.
3.1.4. Pronouns
Pronouns
are words that can replace nouns.
This part will introduce you to additional ways of joining
sentences, with pronouns.
Look at the two sentences below.
I talked to the counselor. She was very helpful.
The words the counselor and she refer to one person. In
this example she could be replaced with another pronoun,
who:
I talked to the counselor who was very helpful.
We call who a relative pronoun because it relates the
information was very helpful to the counselor.
The relative pronouns are:
who, whom, whose, which, and that.
The teacher who has that book is Ms. Lincoln.
Jane is the person to whom I sent the invitation.
The man whose car I hit was very nice about it.
My report which is due tomorrow is finished.
The tomatoes that John gave me from his garden are delicious.
Clauses beginning with the relative pronouns are called Relative
clause.
They are dependent clauses because they cannot stand alone
as a sentence. They are called adjective clause because they
describe a noun or a pronoun.
The place of an adjective clause is exactly after the noun it
describes.
Example: Bill bought his daughter a car that costs a fortune.
There are two kinds of adjective clauses
Restrictive
Adjective clause
Nonrestricitve
Read the two sentences below
1. You cant start a car that has a dead battery.
2. My new car, which I bought in October, started everyday in the
coldest weather
Now
Omit the adjective clauses in both sentences.
a. You can’t start a car……
b. My new car…….. started everyday in the coldest weather.
If you consider the changes in meaning you can see that there is a great difference
between the meanings of sentence (1) and sentence (a).In sentence (1), the relative
clause restricts the meaning of the car to the one with a dead battery and not any
other car. So we call this relative clause a Restrictive Relative Clause. But the
sentences (2) and (b) have similar meanings. In sentence (2) the relative clause just
adds a bit of extra information and because the clause doesn't restrict the meaning
in a particular way we call the clause a Nonrestrictive Relative Clause. We shouldn't
use a comma around a restrictive relative clause while we should use commas
around the nonrestrictive relative clause.
The relative pronoun who, which and that can serve as the subject of their clause:
Examples:
Dr. Dunn is the professor who teaches modern language.
Our car, which is ten years old, needs to be replaced.
You have to take a course that fulfills the natural science requirement.
The relative pronouns whom, that, which are the objects of their clauses.
Example:
Please give this form to the man whom you see at the front desk.
You must fill out several forms that you can get from the receptionist.
This is the form on which you need to write your name and address.
The relative pronoun in the object position can be omitted except when it follows
a preposition.
Please give this form to the man you see at the front desk.
You must fill out several forms you can get from the receptionist.
This is the form on which you need to write your name and address.
Exercise: Combine the following sentences using the relative
pronoun.
1. Throughout France in the early sixteenth century, New Year’s Day was
celebrated on march 25. It began the spring season.
2. People would celebrate for a week by exchanging gifts at parties and
dinners. These ended on April 1.
3. However, in 1564, King Charles IX moved the date of the New Year’s
Day back to January 1. It was the beginning of the new Gregorian
calendar.
4. Nevertheless, for many of the French, gift-giving and parties continued
to occur on April1. They resisted the charge.
5. Some of the people made fun of these conservatives by sending foolish
gifts and invitations to parties. The parties didn’t exist.
6. After the French became comfortable with January 1 as the beginning
of the year, they continued to play jokes on April 1. It became the
tradition.
7. Two hundred years later. The English adopted the custom. It then went
on to reach the American colonies.
Now look at another example of relative clause joining two
sentences:
I know something. You said it.
I know what you said.
Notice that “what you said” replaces “something” that is the
object of the verb “know”. An object is a noun or here a pronoun.
So we can call the relative clause in this case a
Noun Clause.
Because it function as a noun and replaces a noun
A noun clause can be the subject of a sentence compare these
sentences:
His behavior annoyed me.
What he did annoyed me.
Other joining words can begin noun clauses.
He told me
where
how
when
when
that
I should go.
if
He asked me
he should go.
weather
3.2. Revising Sentences
3.2.1. Subject-verb
Agreement
As you know the subject of a sentence comes before the verb and could
be:
Nouns or Pronouns.
They could be singular (representing one person, thing or place) or plural
(representing more than one).
A singular subject goes with a singular verb and a plural subject goes with
a plural verb. This rule is called
subject-verb agreement.
Now look at5 the two sentences that did not obey this rule:
1. I are reading a fascinating book.
2. He am a charming man
The correct forms are:
a) I am reading a fascinating book.
b) He is a charming man
3.2.2. Present Tense Verb
3.2.2.1. Simple Present
Read Rose’s answer to an interviewer:
Yes, I like this supermarket. I think it’s very nice. Yes, my husband
thinks so, too. We always shop here. We come here every week.
We live quite near, so it doesn’t take long to get here.
The bold verbs in this paragraph are in Simple Present Tense.
Positive Form: I/you/we/they shop here.
He/she/ it shops here.
Negative Form: I/you/we/they do not(don’t) shop here.
He/she/it does not (doesn’t) shop here.
Question Form: Do I/you/we/they shop here?
Does he/she/it shop here?
Uses of Simple Present Tense
We use simple present for:
1. Thoughts and feelings: I think so, I like it. My
husband thinks so.
2. States, things staying the same, facts, and things
that are true for a long time: We live quite near.
3. Repeated action: We come here every week.
4. In phrases like I promise, I agree.
5. In negative question with why: Why don’t you go
out.
3.2.2.2. Present Continuous
Sarah’s train is late, so she is phoning Mark
Mark? I’m at the station. I’m waiting for the train. Oh I can
hear it. It’s coming now.
The bold words are the verbs in present continuous tense.
Form
Positive Form
Negative Form
Question Form
I am looking.
You/we/they are looking.
He/she it is looking.
I am not looking.
You/we/they are not looking.
He/she/it is not looking.
Am I looking?
Are you/we/they looking?
Is he/she/it looking?
Use
We use present continuous to say that:
1. We are in the middle of an action. Example: I’m
waiting for the train.[I’m at the station now.] I’m
getting the lunch ready.[ I’m in the kitchen now.]
2. We are in the middle of something but not actually
doing it at the moment of speaking. Example: I
must get back top the office. We’re working on a
new project. I’m quite busy these days. I am doing
a course at college.
3. Things are changing over a period of time.
Example: The number of cars on the roads is
increasing. The earth is getting warmer.
4. Something happen in future.
Exercise: Complete the conversation using present simple or
present continuous.
1. A: Is Janet in please?
B: Yes but………….(I/think) she is busy at the moment……………(she/wash) her
hair.
A:………..(I/think) of buying a new computer
B: But computers…………(cost) so much money. What’s wrong with the one
we’ve got?
A:………..(it/get) out of date now.
2. A: What……..(you/do)?
B: ……….(I/weigh) this letter………..(I/need)to know how many stamps to put
on it.
3.A: ………(I/think) this road is really dangerous. Look how fast that
lorry……….(go).
B:………(I/agree).People shouldn’t go so fast.
4.A: ……..(I/always/fall) asleep. I just can’t keep awake.
B: What time……….(you/go) to bed?
A: About ten o’clock usually. But………(it/ not/make)any difference.
3.2.3. Past Tense Verb
3.2.3.1. Simple Past
Read the paragraph that is Joe’s description of how
the accident happened:
It all happened very quickly. The car came straight out
of the side road. And the van went into the back of it.
The van driver didn’t have a chance. It was the car
driver’s fault.
The bold words are the verbs in simple past tense.
Positive Form
A regular past form ends in –ed.
It happened very quickly.
I posted the letters yesterday.
Some verbs have irregular past form which is a completely
different word:
The car came out of the side road.
Vicky rang earlier.
The past simple is the same for all persons except for the
verb be:
I/he/she/it was ill.
You/we/they were ill.
Negative & Question Forms
I/you/we/they/he/she/it did not stop. (didn’t stop)
Did I/you/we/they/he/she/it stop?
I/he/she/it was not sad. (wasn’t)
You/we/they were not sad.(weren’t)
Was I/he/she/it sad?
Were you/we/they sad?
Use:
We use past simple for something that happened
in the past and finished:
Example:
Emma passed her exam last year.
We went to the theater on Friday.
Elvis Presley died in 1977.
I knew what the problem was.
3.2.3.2. Past Continuous
Read what Jane says to Emma:
I had a wonderful dream last night. I was sitting in park. The
sun was shining and the birds were singing. Children were
playing and laughing. I was very peaceful. I didn’t want to
wake up.
Form
I/he/she/it was playing soccer.
You/ we/they were playing soccer.
I/he/she/it was not playing soccer.(wasn’t playing)
You/we/they were not playing soccer. (weren’t playing)
Was I/he/she/it playing soccer?
Were you/ we/ they playing soccer?
Use
Read the conversation:
Melanie: I rang at about 3 yesterday afternoon. Bit you
weren’t in. I didn’t know where you were.
David: Oh I was helping Mike. We were repairing his car. It
took ages. We were working on it all afternoon.
Melanie: It was raining. I hope you weren’t doing it outside.
David: No we were in the garage. So I didn’t get wet. But I’m
afraid I got oil all over my trousers.
Melanie: Why were you wearing your new trousers to repair
a car?
David: I don’t know I forgot I had them on.
• It was raining at three o’clock means that at
three o’clock we were in the middle of the rain.
The rain began before three and stopped some
time after three.
• We were working all afternoon means that The
action went on for the whole period. David is
stressing the length of time that the work went
on.
Now look at the following example:
You drove right past me when I was waiting for the bus.
In this example you can see past continuous and past simple
used together.
We use this form when:
a shorter action came in the middle of a longer action in the
past. Longer action is used in past continuous and shorter
action is used in simple past.
In this kind of sentences past continuous is used after
as, while, when.
We were driving down the hill when a strange object
appeared in the sky.
David was making lunch when the phone rang.
Choose the correct verb forms. Use Simple Past or
the Past Progressive.
1) We …………(sit) at the breakfast table when the doorbell ………(ring) .
2) He………(meet) a lot of friendly people while he…………(work)in California.
3) When they………(leave)the museum, the sun……….(shine).
4) The students……….(play)cards when the teacher………(come)in.
5) While the children………..(sleep), their parents…………(watch)TV.
6) It……….(start)to rain while she……..(water)the flowers in her garden.
7) When I………(open)the door, it………(rain).
8) While Henry……..(have)a drink at the bar, his wife……….(swim) in the sea.
9) He………(hear)a loud bang while he………..(talk) to his friend.
10) While he………(take)a shower, his dogs……….(eat)his steaks.
3.2.4. Future Tense Verbs
3.2.4.1. Will & Shall
Read this report from a reporter.
The world leaders will arrive here tomorrow. They will have
plenty to talk about, but they won’t be here for long-only 24
hours. You’ll hear live reports every hour.
Form
I/you/we/they/he/she/it will pass the course.
I/you/we/they/he/she/it will not (won’t) pass the course
Will I/you/we/they/he/she/it pass the course?
Use
1. We use will to say what we know or think about the future. It
has a neutral meaning. It doesn’t express a decision or a plan.
The world leaders will arrive here tomorrow.
There is no decision or plan here it’s just a of piece
knowledge about future.
2. We also use will for instant decision, when we decide on
something or agree to do it more or less at the moment of
speaking.
I’m thirsty. I think I’ll make some tea.
3. We use will when we want to order something.
I’ll have the ham salad ,please.
4. We use will for offers and invitations.
A: I’ll peel the potatoes.
B: Ok Thank you.
Shall
• We can use shall for the future, but only in the first person
after I or We.
I will be/ shall be on holiday in August.
We will know/shall know the results soon.
• I will and I shall have the same meaning here but shall is a
little formal. Both I will and I shall can be shortened to I’ll.
• We can also use shall in offers and suggestions .
Shall I pack your shopping for you?
Shall we all go out together?
• We do not use shall in American English.
Exercise: Read the conversations. Which replies are
statements about future and which are instant decision.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What would you like? I’ll have an orange juice please……...
Shall we go out tonight? I’ll be too tired, I think…………
We’ve lost a tennis ball. I’ll help you look for it……………
I’m worried about the exam. Oh you’ll be all right…………
I must fix this shelf some time. We’ll be dead before
then……
6. I haven’t got any transport. Oh we’ll give you a lift………
3.2.4.2. Be going to
Look at the picture below and read the conversation.
Form
I am/ You, We, They are/He, She, It is going to
climb the tree.
Use
1. We use be going to to talk about something we
have decided to do (an intention). David intends to
climb up the ladder.
I’m going to watch the next program.
2. We use be going to for a prediction based on the
present situation. Look at the picture:
The ladder is moving so David is going to fall.
My sister is going to have a baby in
March.
It’s nearly nine now. We’re going to
be late.
Exercise: Put in the verbs with be going to.
Laura: What are you doing with that camera?
Trevor: (►) I'm going to take (I / take) it to work. (1)…………………………………….. (I / lend)
it to Phil.
(2) ................................................ (he / take) a few photos with it.
Laura: Why can't he buy his own camera?
Trevor: He's got one, but it isn't working properly. (3)..........……………………………… (it /
be) a while
before he can get it repaired.
Laura: Well, how long (4)......................................…………… (he / keep) ours? When
(5)………………………………………. (we / get) it back?
Trevor: (6)……………………………………….. (he / have) it over the weekend.
(7) ...................................................... (we / get) it back on Monday.
Laura: Well, I hope (8)……………… ................................... ( it / not / get) damaged.
Exercise: What would you say in these situations? Use
these words: be sick, crash, get wet, lose, not stop, rain
► The sky is full of dark clouds.
It’s going to rain.
1 Now it's starting to rain. There's nowhere to shelter, and you haven't
got an umbrella.
2 You feel awful. There's a terrible feeling in your stomach.
3 You are playing Scrabble. The game is nearly over and you are 100
points behind.
4 You can see a plane coming down. It's out of control and falling to
the ground.
5 You are waiting for a train. There's one coming, but you don't know
if it's the one you want.
It's travelling very fast.
Exercise: What would you say? Use will or be going
to.
► You want to express your intention to look round the museum.
Your friend: Do you have any plans for this afternoon?
You: Yes, I'm going to look round the museum.
1. You hate dogs. Dogs always attack you if they get the chance.
Your friend: That dog doesn't look very friendly.
You: It's coming towards us ....................................
2. You predict the landing of aliens on the earth in the next ten years.
Your friend: All this talk about aliens is complete nonsense, isn't it?
You: Is it? I think .........................................
3. You know that your friend's sister has decided to get married.
Your friend: Have you heard about my sister?
You: Well, I heard that ........................................
4. You suddenly decide you want to invite Ilona for a meal.
Your friend: Did you know Ilona will be in town next weekend?
You: No, I didn't. ....................................................
3.2.4.3. Present Tenses for Future
Present Continuous for Arrangements
Tom: Are you doing anything this evening?
Nick: Yes, I'm going to an ice hockey match.
The Tigers are playing the Kings.
I bought my ticket yesterday.
We use present continuous for what someone has arranged to do
in future. Here Nick has arranged to go to the match. (He has
bought a ticket.) Here are some more examples.
I'm meeting Harriet at six o'clock. David is coming round later on.
We're having a party tomorrow. Sarah is going to Paris next
week.
The present continuous for the future and be going to have
similar meanings.
We're having a party next week. (We have made the
arrangements.)
The present simple for a timetable
Read the conversation:
Mark: What time does your train leave tomorrow?
Sarah: Seven twenty-three in the morning.
It gets into Paris at eleven twenty-three.
We can use the present simple for the future when
we are talking about a timetable, usually a public
one such as a train timetable.
The train leaves at seven twenty-three tomorrow
morning.
The match starts at half past seven.
Next Friday is the thirteenth.
I've got the tour details here. We spend three days in
Exercise:Put the verbs into the present continuous
or the present simple.
Emma: (►) Are you doing (you / do) anything tonight?
Matthew: Yes, (1)…………………………….. (1 / go) to the station to meet
my friend Richard.
(2)……………………………… (he / stay) here for the weekend, remember?
His train
(3)…………………............... (get) in at eight fifteen.
Emma: Oh, of course. I'd forgotten about that.
Matthew: Maybe we'll see you later. What (4)…………………………….. (you
/ do) tonight?
Emma: Oh, (5)…………………………… (I / go) to the cinema with Vicky and
Rachel and a couple of
other people. The film (6)…………………………… (finish) quite early, so
(7).........................................(we / go) to a pizza place afterwards.
3.2.5. Perfect Verb
3.2.5.1. Present Perfect
Form
The present perfect is the present tense of have + a past
participle.
I/you/we/they have washed OR I/you/we/they've washed
he/she/it has washed OR he/she/it's washed
NEGATIVE
I/you/we/they haven't washed.
he/she/it hasn't washed has
QUESTION
have I/you/we/they washed?
he/she/it washed?
Regular past participles
They end in -ed, e.g. washed, landed, finished. We've
washed the dishes. Have you opened your letter? The aircraft has landed
safely. How many points has Matthew scored? The students haven't
finished their exams.
Irregular forms
Some participles are irregular.
I've made a shopping list. We've sold our car. I've thought about it a lot.
Have you written the letter? She hasn't drunk her coffee.
Use
When we use the present perfect, we see things as happening in the past but
having a result in the present.
We've washed the dishes. (They're clean now.) The aircraft has landed. (It's on the
ground now.)
We've eaten all the eggs. (There aren't any left.)
Present Perfect or Past Simple
The present perfect tells us about the past and the present.
United have won the Cup, so it's theirs now. The past simple tells
us about the past, a time
which is finished. Last year is in the past.
Trevor: We've bought a new car.
Tom: Oh, have you? What sort?
Laura: An Adagio. We bought it last week.
We often give a piece of news in the present perfect, e.g. We've bought a new car.
(The car is ours now.) We use the past simple, e.g. We bought it last week, to give
details or to ask for details about things such as when
and where it happened.
PRESENT PERFECT
We use the present perfect for a state or an action which has
gone on up to the present. (David is still in
hospital.)
We've lived here for ten years.
PAST SIMPLE
We use the past simple for a state or an action in the past, in a
period which is finished. (David's stay in hospital
is over.)
We lived there for ten years.
(We don't live there now.)
Exercise: Trevor and Laura are decorating their
house. Put in the verbs. Use the present perfect.
Laura: How is the painting going? (►) Have you finished ? (you / finish)
Trevor: No, I haven't. Painting the ceiling is really difficult, you know.
(1) ................... (I / not / do) very much. And it looks just the same as
before. This new paint (2) ....................................................... (not / make) any difference.
Laura: (3) ..................................................... (you / not / put) enough on.
Trevor: (4) ........................................... (1 / hurt) my back. It feels bad.
Laura: Oh, you and your back. You mean (5)………………………………………. (you / have) enough of
decorating. Well, I'll do it. Where (6) .................………………………… (you / put) the brush?
Trevor: I don't know. (7) ............................................................ ( it / disappear).
(8)………………………………………. (I / look) for it, but I can't find it.
Laura: You're hopeless, aren't you? How much (9)………………………………… (you / do) in here?
Nothing! (10) ............................................................ (I / paint) two doors.
Trevor: (11)………………………………………… (I / clean) all this old paint around the window.
It looks much better now, doesn't it?
Laura: (12)……………………………………… (we / make) some progress, I suppose.
Now, where (13) ........................................................ (that brush /go)?
Oh, (14)……………………………………..... (you / leave) it on the ladder, look.
Exercise: Put in the present perfect or past simple
of the verbs in brackets.
1 The last time I ............................................... (go) to Brighton was in August.
2 I'd like to meet a ghost, but I .................................................(never / see) one.
3 I've finished my homework. I ....................................... (do) it before tea.
4 And the race is over! And Micky Simpson................................................ (win) in a
record time!
5 I ................... (work) for a computer company for a year. That was after college.
6 What time .................................................(you / get) to work this morning?
7 Martin ............................... (be) to Greece five times. He loves the place.
8 The President .............. (come) out of the building and is going to make a speech.
9 You won't believe this, but I've got some tickets for the concert. ~ Oh, well done.
How........................ (you / get) them?
10 Of course I can ride a bike. But I ..........………. ....................(not / ride) one for
years.
11 Marilyn Monroe..................................................(be) in about thirty films.
3.2.5.2. Past Perfect
Form
The past perfect is had + a past participle.
He had enjoyed the party, OR He'd enjoyed the party.
They hadn't gone to bed until late. Where had he put his
wallet?
Read the paragraph below.
I felt really tired when I took the train to work yesterday
because Sarah and 1 had been to a party the evening before.
We hadn't gone to bed until after one. I hadn't been on the
train long when I had a bit of a shock. I suddenly realized that
I'd left my wallet at home. Then I began to wonder. Had I left
it in the office the day before? I just couldn't remember.
Use
In the previous paragraph, the situation is in the past (I
took the train ... I felt
tired ...). When we talk about things before this past
time, we use the past perfect.
Sarah and I had been to a party the evening before.
I'd left my wallet at home.
We are looking back from the situation of the train
journey to the earlier actions - going to a party and
leaving home without the wallet.
Exercise: Add a sentence with the past perfect using
the notes.
1. We rushed to the station, but we were too late.
………………………………………………………………………. (the train /just / go)
2. I didn't have an umbrella, but that didn't matter.
................................................................................................................. (the rain / stop)
3. When I got to the concert hall, they wouldn't let me in.
......................................................................................................... (forget / my ticket)
4. Someone got the number of the car the raiders used.
................................................................................................... (steal / it / a week before)
5. I was really pleased to see Rachel again yesterday.
…………………………………………………………………….. (not see / her / for ages)
6. Luckily the flat didn't look too bad when my parents called in.
………………………………………………………………………(just / clean / it)
7. The boss invited me to lunch yesterday, but I had to refuse the invitation.
………………………………………………………………... (already / eat / my sandwiches)
Exercise: Put the verbs in the present perfect (have
done) or past perfect (had done).
1. The park looked awful. People .............................................. (leave) litter
everywhere.
2. You can have that newspaper. I ............................................(finish) with it.
3. There's no more cheese. We................................................(eat) it all, I'm afraid.
4. There was no sign of a taxi, although I............................................ (order) one
half an hour before.
5. This bill isn't right. They ............................................. (make) a mistake.
6. I spoke to Melanie at lunch-time. Someone ..........................................(tell) her
the news earlier.
7. I was really tired last night. I ...............................................(have) a hard day.
8. Don't you want to see this programme? It ...............................................(start).
9. It'll soon get warm in here. I............................................... (turn) the heating on.
10. At last the committee were ready to announce their decision.
They ……………… .................. (make) up their minds.
3.2.6. So, Neither, I think so
So and neither
Vicky: I'm hungry.
Rachel: So am 1.1 haven't eaten anything all day.
Daniel: Neither have I . I didn't have time for breakfast.
We use so after a positive statement and neither after a negative
one. I'm hungry. ~ So am I. (= And I'm hungry./I'm hungry, too.)
I haven't eaten. ~ Neither have I. (=And I haven't eaten./I haven't
eaten either.)
The structure is so/neither + an auxiliary + the subject.
The auxiliary is a form of be or have or a modal verb, e.g. can.
I think so
Vicky: It's 'Round the Corner' at half past seven, my favourite
soap opera. Are we going to be back in time?
Daniel: I think so. We haven't got far to go now.
Rachel: We might miss the beginning.
Vicky: Oh, I hope not. I want to know if Bernard really did steal
the money.
Here I think so means I think we'll be back in time', and I hope
not means I hope we don't miss the beginning'.
We can use so after be afraid, believe, expect, guess, hope, suppose and
think.
Do you think you'll get the job? ~ Well, I hope so. Are you going
on holiday this year? ~ Yes, I expect so. I don't know for sure if
Henry is rich, but I should think so. But we cannot use so after know or be
sure.
There's been an accident. ~ Yes, I know, NOT I know-so.
Are you sure you're doing the right thing? ~ Yes, I'm sure, NOT I’m sure so.
There are two negative structures.
NEGATIVE + SO
Is it raining? ~ I don't think so.
Are you going to the concert? ~ I don't expect so..
POSITIVE + not
Is it raining? ~ I hope not.
Have we won a prize? ~ I'm afraid not
With expect and think, we normally use the With be
afraid, guess and hope, we use the negative and so.
positive and not.
Exercise: Complete these short conversations. Put in
structures with so or not and use the words in brackets.
? Laura: Does the library open on Saturdays? (think)
Trevor: Yes, / think so. But I'm not absolutely certain.
? Harriet: You can't go out for an evening meal wearing shorts, (guess)
Mike: ! guess not. I'd better put some trousers on.
1. Sarah: Will there be a lot of people at the concert tonight? (expect)
Mark: .................................................. There aren't usually very many.
2. Daniel: Are you going to apply for the job? (suppose)
Vicky: ……………………………… It's the only one available.
3. David: Do you think it's going to rain? (hope)
Melanie: Well, ......................................... I'm just about to go out.
4. Nick: Will the match take place in this weather? (think)
Tom: In fact, I'm sure it won't.
5. Claire: Are my photos ready, please? (afraid)
Assistant: …………………………………. . We're having problems with the machine.
3.2.7. Modals
3.2.7.1. Ability (can, could, be able to)
Can and can't
Read the conversation.
Vicky: How many instruments can you play, Natasha?
Natasha: Three - the violin, the clarinet and the piano.
Vicky: That's terrific. You haven't got a piano here, though.
Natasha: No, but I can go to the music room in college and play
the one in there.
Vicky: I'm not musical at all. I can't even sing.
We use can to say that something is possible: that someone has an ability
(Natasha can play the piano) or an
opportunity (She can go to the music room). Can is usually pronounced but
sometimes we say . The negative
is cannot or can't .
Can and be able to
In the present tense, be able to is a little more formal and less usual than can.
Emma is good with computers. She can write/is able to write programs.
But in some structures we always use be able to, not can.
To-infinitive: It's nice to be able to go to the opera, (NOT to-can-go)
After a modal verb: Melanie might be able to help us.
Present perfect: It's been quiet today. I've been able to get some work
done.
For the future we use can or will be able to but NOT will-can.
If we earn some money, we can go/we'll be able to go on holiday next summer.
I'm afraid I can't come/I won't be able to come to the disco on Friday.
But to suggest a possible future action, we normally use can.
Let's have lunch together. We can go to that new restaurant.
Could and was/were able to
For ability or opportunity in the past, we use could or was/were able to.
Natasha could play (OR was able to play) the piano when she was four.
In those days we had a car, so we could travel (OR were able to travel)
very easily.
To say that the ability or opportunity resulted in a particular action,
something that really happened, we use was/were able to but not could.
The plane was able to take off at eleven o'clock, after the fog had lifted.
Luckily Mark was able to get (OR succeeded in getting) the work done in
time.
The drivers were able to stop (OR managed to stop) before they crashed
into each other.
Compare these two sentences.
The children could swim when they were quite young, (a past ability) The
children were able to swim across the river. (a past action)
Exercise: Put in could or was/were able to. Sometimes
either is possible. Use a negative if necessary.
► Suddenly all the lights went out. We couldn't see a thing.
1 The computer went wrong, but luckily
Emma………………………… put it right again.
2 There was a big party last night. You………………………… hear
the music half a mile away.
3 I learnt to read music as a child. I............................... read it
when I was five.
4 People heard warnings about the flood, and
they............................. move out in time.
5 The train was full. I ......................... find a seat anywhere.
3.2.7.2. Permission (can, may, could, be allowed
to)
Asking permission
We use can, could or may to ask for permission.
Can I use your pen?
Could we borrow your ladder, please? ~ Well,
I'm using it at the moment.
May I see the letter? ~ Certainly.
Could often sounds more polite than can. May is
rather formal.
Giving and refusing permission
To give permission we use can or may (but not could).
You can wait in my office if you like.
Could I borrow your calculator? ~ Of course you can.
You may telephone from here, (a written notice)
May is formal and is not often used in speech.
To refuse permission we use can't or may not (but not couldn't).
Could we picnic here? ~ I'm sorry. I'm afraid you can't. Members
may not bring more than two guests into the club.
We can also use must not.
Luggage must not be left unattended.
Exercise: How would you ask for permission in
these situations?
► Use Can I...?, Could I...? or May I...? and these verbs:
borrow, join, look at, use You are at a friend's flat. You want
to make a phone call. Can I use your phone?
1 You need a calculator. The person sitting next to you has
got one.
2 You have gone into a cafe. Three people who you know
from work are sitting at a table. You go over to the table.
3 You had to go to a lecture, but you were ill. Your friend
went to the lecture and took notes. Next day you are well
again and you see your friend.
3.2.7.3. Possibility & Certainty (may,
might, could, must)
May, might and could
Rachel: Whose bag is that?
Daniel: I don't know. It may belong to Maria's friend.
Vicky: It might be a bomb. It could explode at any moment.
We use may or might to say that something is possible or
that it is quite likely.
We can use them for the present or the future.
It may/might be a bomb. (= Perhaps it is a bomb.)
/ may/might go to the disco tomorrow. (= Perhaps I will
go to the disco.)
We can use could to say that something is possible.
The story could be true, I suppose. (= Possibly it is true.)
You could win a million pounds! (= Possibly you will win a
million pounds.)
Sometimes could means only a small possibility. It is possible (but
not likely) that you will win a million pounds.
In some situations we can use may, might or could.
It may/might/could rain later.
After may, might or could we can use a continuous form (be + an
ing-form).
That man may/might be watching us. (= Perhaps he is
watching us.)
Sarah may/might be working late tonight. (= Perhaps she will
be working late.)
I'm not sure where Matthew is.
He could be playing
squash. (= Possibly he is playing squash.)
May, might and could in the negative
The negative forms are may not, might not/mightn't, and could
not/couldn't.
MAY NOT AND MIGHT NOT
Something negative is possible.
Daniel may not get the job. Tom might not be in.
I mightn't finish the marathon tomorrow.
(It is possible that I will not finish it.)
COULDN'T
Something is impossible.
Vicky is afraid of heights. She couldn't climb onto the roof.
I'm completely unfit. I couldn't run a marathon.
(It is impossible for me to run it.)
MUST
We use must when we realize that something is
certainly true.
She isn't answering the phone. She must be out.
I had my keys a moment ago. They must be here
somewhere.
CAN’T
We use can't when we realize that something is
impossible.
We haven't walked far. You can't be tired yet.
Life can't be easy when you have to spend it in a
wheelchair.
Exercise: A reporter is interviewing Mrs Miles for a TV news
programme.
Complete the conversation. Put in must, can't or might.
Mrs Miles: My name's Nora Miles, and I'm going to do a parachute
jump.
Reporter: Mrs Miles, you're seventy-three, and you're going to jump
out of an aeroplane.
You (►) must be mad. You (1) ......................................be serious.
Mrs Miles: It really (2)…………………………………..be wonderful to look
down from the sky.
I've always wanted to try it.
Reporter: But anything could happen. You (3) ..........................................
be injured or even killed. I wouldn't take the risk.
Mrs Miles: Well, young man, your life (4) ……………………….. be much fun
if you never take risks. You ought to try it. You never know - you (5)
………………………………enjoy it.
Reporter: Enjoy it? You (6) ........................................ be joking!
3.2.7.4. Necessity (must, have to, mustn’t,
needn’t)
We use must and have to/has to to say that something is necessary.
You'll be leaving college soon. You must think about your future. We're
very busy at the office.
I have to work on Saturday morning. Mark has to get the car
repaired. There's something wrong with the brakes.
When we use the past, or the future with will, we need a form of have to.
Emma had to go to the dentist yesterday, NOT She must go to the
dentist yesterday.
For negatives and questions with have to/has to and had to, we use a
form of do.
I don't have to work on Sundays. Why does Andrew have to study
every evening?
Did you have to pay for your second cup of coffee? ~ No, I didn't. I don't
have to
Must or have to?
Both must and have to express necessity, but we use them differently.
MUST
We use must when the speaker feels that something is necessary.
You must exercise. (I'm telling you.) We must be quiet. (I'm telling you.)
I/we must can also express a wish.
/ must buy a newspaper. 1 want to see the racing results.
HAVE TO
We use have to when the situation makes something necessary.
I have to exercise. (The doctor told me.) We have to be quiet. (That's the
rule.)
Have got to
Have got to means the same as have to, but have got to is informal. We
use it mainly in the present. I have to/I've got to make my sandwiches.
My father has to/has got to take these pills. Do we have to apply/Have
we got to apply for a visa?
Exercise: Write a sentence with must, have to or has
to.
► The sign says: 'Passengers must show their tickets.'
So passengers have to show their tickets.
► The children have to be in bed by nine.
Their parents said: 'You must be in bed by nine.'
1. Laura has to get to work on time.
Her boss told her: ................................................................................................
2. The police told Nick: 'You must keep your dog under control.'
So Nick………………………………………………………………....
3. The pupils have to listen carefully.
The teacher says:………………………………………………………….
4. The new sign says: 'Visitors must report to the security officer.'
So now…………………………………………………………………………
Mustn't or needn't?
MUSTN'T
We use mustn't to say that something is not necessary,
You mustn't drop those glasses. They'll break. You
needn't wash those glasses. They're dean.
I mustn't forget my key, or I won't get in. You
mustn't wear your best clothes.
NEEDN’T
We use needn't when something a bad idea.
We needn't make sandwiches. There's a cafe.
You'll get You needn't wear your best clothes.
Don't have to and don't need to
We can use don't have to and don't need to when
something is not necessary.
The meaning is the same as needn't.
You don't have to / don't need to wash those
glasses. They're clean.
Mark doesn't have to /doesn't need to finish the
report today. He can do it at the weekend.
For the past we use didn't.
The food was free. We didn't have to pay/We didn't
need to pay for it.
DIDN'T NEED TO
We use didn't need to when something was not necessary.
Daniel hadn't booked a seat, but luckily the train
wasn't full. He didn't need to stand.
Standing was not necessary because there were seats.
NEEDN'T HAVE
We use needn't have + a past participle for something we did
which we now know was not necessary, e.g. booking a table.
Trevor and Laura booked a table for dinner. But the
restaurant was empty. They needn't have booked a table.
Exercise: Put in must, mustn't or needn't.
► Laura: You needn't take an umbrella. It isn't going to rain.
Trevor: Well, I don't know. It might do.
Laura: Don't lose it then. You mustn't leave it on the bus.
1. Vicky: Come on. We ..................... hurry. We......................be late.
Rachel: It's only ten past. We ................. hurry. There's lots of time.
2. Claire: My sister and I are going a different way.
Guide: Oh, you.................... go off on your own. It isn't safe.
We.................... keep together in a group.
3. David: I'll put these cups in the dishwasher.
Melanie: No, you .................put them in there. It might damage them.
In fact, we ..................wash them at all. We didn't use them.
4. Secretary: I ....... forget to type this letter.
Mark: Yes, it................. go in the post today because it's quite urgent.
But the report isn't so important. You…………….. type the report today.
3.2.7.5. Should, Ought to, Had better, Be
supposed to
Should and ought to
We use should and ought to to say what is the best thing or
the right thing to do. There is no difference in meaning.
You're not very well. Perhaps you should see a doctor.
Your uncle was very kind to me. I ought to write him a
letter of thanks.
use should and ought to in questions to ask for advice.
Where should I put this picture, do you think?
It's a difficult problem. How ought we to deal with it?
Had better
We use had better to say what is the best thing to do in a
situation.
It's cold. The children had better wear their coats.
The neighbours are complaining. We'd better turn the music
down.
My wife is waiting for me. I'd better not be late.
We could also use should or ought to in these examples,
although had better is stronger. The speaker sees the action as
necessary and expects that it will happen.
Be supposed to
We use be supposed to when we are talking about the normal or
correct way of doing things.
The guests are supposed to buy flowers for the hostess. Look at these
cars. This area is supposed to be kept clear of traffic. The bus driver
needs to concentrate. You're not supposed to talk to him. We can use
was/were supposed to for the past.
It's eleven o'clock. You were supposed to be here at ten thirty, you know.
Exercise: Complete the conversation. Use should, ought to,
had better or be supposed to and the verbs in brackets.
Usually there is more than one correct answer.
Vicky: What time (►) are we supposed to be (we / be) at the coffee
morning?
Rachel: The invitation says ten o'clock.
Vicky: Well, it's ten now. (1) ................................................ we / hurry).
(2)……………………………………… (we / not / be) late.
Rachel: Oh, it won't matter if we're a bit late.
Vicky: I think it would be rude, wouldn't it? I don't think people
(3)............................................ (arrive) late when they've been invited to
something.
Rachel: You worry too much. (4) ........………… ... (you / not / take)
everything so seriously, Vicky. It's a coffee morning, not a job interview.
(5)……………………………............... (we / not / get) there exactly on time.
3.2.7.6. Request & Imperative
Polite requests
We can use can or could in a request, when we ask someone to do
something.
Can everyone be quiet for a minute, please?
Can you keep me informed'? ~ Yes, of course.
Could you lend me ten pounds until tomorrow? ~ Sorry, I haven't got
ten pounds.
Could is often more polite than can.
In a request we can also use Do you mind . . . ? or Would you mind...?
with an ing-form.
Do you mind waiting a moment? ~ No, I can wait.
Would you mind sitting in the back? ~ No, not at all.
We can also use Would you like to ...?
Would you like to lay the table for me? ~ Yes, of course. We do not
use Do you like ...?
The imperative
We can sometimes use the imperative form to tell
someone what to do.
Bring another chair. Hurry up or we'll be late. We
form the negative with don't.
Don't be silly. Don't make so much noise.
We can use an imperative when we are with friends in
an informal situation. But we do not use it to a stranger
or in a more formal situation.
Exercise: Mr Atkins is the boss at Zedco. He tells everyone
what to do. Complete his sentences. Use these words: can,
could, have, like, mind, must, want, wonder, would
► Would you mind making some tea, Alan?
1. You…………………inform me of any developments.
2.Could I ................... the latest sales figures, please?
3. Would you ...................to arrange a meeting some
time next week, Fiona?
4. I……………….everyone to read the report.
5. ………………..I see the file, please, Mark?
6. ………………..you mind putting this in writing?
7. I……………..if you could translate this letter, Linda.
8. ……………… you meet our customer at the airport?
3.2.8. Passive Verbs Vs. Active Verb
Look at these two sentences.
ACTIVE
Bell invented the telephone.
PASSIVE
The telephone was invented by Bell.
The two sentences have the same meaning, but they are about different
things. One sentence is about Bell, and the other is about the telephone.
Each sentence begins with the subject. The subject is the startingpoint
of the sentence, the thing we are talking about. The new information
about the subject comes at the end of the sentence.
In English, all sentences are in either "active" or "passive" voice.
In an active sentence, the person or thing responsible for the action in the
sentence comes first. In a passive sentence, the person or thing acted on
comes first, and the actor is added at the end, introduced with the
preposition "by.“
A passive verb is a form of be + a passive participle, e.g. is baked, was
worn. Some participles are irregular.
Tense
Summary of verb tense
Active
Passive
Present simple:
We bake the bread here.
The bread is baked here.
Present continuous:
We are baking the bread.
The bread is being baked.
Present perfect:
We have baked the bread.
The bread has been baked.
Past simple:
We baked the bread
yesterday
The bread was baked
yesterday.
Past continuous:
We were baking the
bread.
The bread was being baked.
Past perfect:
We had baked the bread.
The bread had been baked.
The future and modal verbs in the passive
We use be + a passive participle after will, be going to, can,
must, have to, should, etc.
The gates will be dosed this evening. This rubbish should be
thrown away. The machine has to be repaired. The news
might be announced soon. Seats may not be reserved. How
can the problem be solved?
ACTIVE
Future: We will bake the bread next.
We are going to bake the bread.
Modal verb: We should bake the bread soon.
We ought to bake the bread.
PASSIVE
The bread will be baked next.
The bread is going to be baked.
The bread should be baked soon.
The bread ought to be baked.
The passive with get
We sometimes use get in the passive instead of be.
Lots of postmen get bitten by dogs. I'm always
getting chosen for the worst jobs.
Last week Laura got moved to another
department. Get is informal.
We often use it for something happening by
accident or unexpectedly.
In negatives and questions in the present simple
and past simple, we use a form of do.
Exercise: Complete the information about Barford
Hall. Put in the correct form of these verbs.
► build (past simple) 1 own (present simple) 2 use (past continuous) 3
buy (past simple) 4 not look (past perfect) 5 do (present perfect)
6 use (present simple)
(►) The building at the end of the High Street is Barford Hall, which
was built in 1827. Today the Hall
(1)…………………………………. by Bardale Council. It (2) ........…………………as a
warehouse when it
(3) …………………… by the Council in 1952, and it (4)
........................……………...after very well.
Since then a lot of work (5) ................................on it, and these days the
Hall
(6)………………………………….. as an arts centre.
3.2.9. Have something done, Get something done
Claire decorated the room.
(She did the work herself.)
Claire had the room decorated.
(A decorator did the work.)
We can use have in a passive structure. Claire had the room decorated means
that she arranged for a decorator to do it for her as a professional service.
Form
Look at these examples
You should have your car serviced regularly.
Mark usually has his suits cleaned at Superclean
We had the television repaired only last year,
You've had your hair cut.
Our neighbours are having a new garage built.
Is Melanie having a new cooker installed?
Note that we can use the perfect or the continuous (have had, are
having).
In negatives and questions in simple tenses, we use a form of do.
Mark doesn't have his suits cleaned at Fastclean. We didn't
have new windows put in because it was
too expensive. Do you have your car serviced regularly? Where
did you have your
hair cut?
Get something done
We can also use get something done.
We must have another key made. OR We must get
another key made.
The sentences have the same meaning, but get is
more informal than have.
Here are some more examples with get.
Laura got her shoes repaired. We're getting the
carpet cleaned.
Where did you get your hair cut? Do you get your
heating checked every year?
3.2.10. Verb+ Infinitive
After some verbs we can use a to-infinitive, e.g. decided to
have, arranged to play. Here are some more examples.
/ expect to get my money back.
Sarah agreed to work late at the office.
We cant afford to go to Australia.
Are you hoping to get a job in London?
Melanie has offered to help us when we move house.
We can put not before the to-infinitive.
Some people just choose not to get married.
At least I managed not to lose my temper.
With some other verbs we use an ing-form, not a to infinitive
Mark has finished playing golf.
Seem and appear
We can use a to-infinitive after seem and appear.
Sarah seemed to be quite annoyed. The computer program appears to
have a bug in it. The person I spoke to didn't seem to know anything
about the company's products.
We can use a continuous or a perfect to-infinitive.
Continuous: Andrew seems to be studying even harder these days.
Perfect: David appeared to have hurt himself.
Tend, manage and fail
We use tend to for things that usually happen.
We tend to get up later at weekends. (= We usually get up later at
weekends.)
We use manage to for being able to do something.
Luckily I managed to find my way here all right. (= I was able to find my
way.)
We use fail to for things that don't happen.
David failed to pay his electricity bill. (= David didn't pay his electricity
bill.)
Exercise: Complete the answers using seem and a toinfinitive. (Some
of the to-infinitives may be continuous or perfect.)
Vicky: Have Matthew and Emma got over their quarrel?
Daniel: I think so. They seem to have got over it.
?Rita: Is Claire in love with Henry?
Sarah: Probably not. She doesn't seem to be in love with him.
1 Tom: Do Mike and Harriet really believe there's life on Mars?
David: Well, yes.......................................................................................... there is.
2 Victor: Has Ilona's English improved?
Emma: Yes, ............................................................................. quite a lot.
3 David: Does Rita like football?
Tom: I don't think so....................................................................................... it
much.
4 Natasha: Is Daniel working hard, do you think?
Rachel: Yes, I think so......................................................................................... hard.
5. Sarah: Has Trevor made a good job of those shelves?
Laura: Not really.
3.2.11. Verb+ -ing form
After some verbs we can use an ing-form, for example,
suggested going, enjoy putting.
/ usually avoid driving in the rush hour. We'll have to
practise throwing the ball into the basket.
Have you finished typing that letter? Nick says he's
given up smoking.
We can sometimes put not before an ing-form.
Imagine not having anywhere to live.
With some other verbs we use a to-infinitive, not an
ing-form.
I don't want to put up a tent in the rain.
Mind
We use mind + an ing-form mostly in negative statements
and in questions.
Andrew doesn't mind having lots of work. He quite likes it.
(= He doesn't dislike having lots of work.) Do you mind
waiting a moment? ~ No, that's
OK. I wouldn't mind travelling around the world some
time.
Verbs with can't
Note can't or couldn't with help, resist, face and stand. We
can put an ing-form after these verbs.
/ think Tom is very amusing. I can't help laughing at his
funny stories. The dress was so beautiful
that Claire couldn't resist buying it. Let's eat out, shall we?
1 can't face cooking a meal today. I never
go in the bank if it's busy. I can't stand waiting in a queue.
Exercise: Answer the questions using the notes in
brackets.
1 Laura: Have you done the crossword? (I / give up / try)
You: No,………………………………………………………
2 Daniel: There's a story here in the paper about a 110year-old man. (1 / can / not / imagine / be)
You: Good Lord...................................................................so
old.
3. Tom: Do you like football? (I / enjoy / watch / it / on TV)
You: Well,...................................................................
4. Rachel: Whose idea was it to invite all these people?
(suggest / have / a party)
You: I'm not sure. Someone
..................................................................................
A few verbs take either a to-infinitive or an ing-form.
Laura started to paint/started painting a picture.
+ TO-INFINITIVE
These verbs are followed by a to-infinitive.
agree, aim, appear arrange, ask, attempt, beg, can't afford,
can't wait choose, claim, decide, demand, desire, expect, fail,
guarantee, happen, help , hope, manage, offer, plan,
prepare, pretend, promise, prove, refuse, seem , tend,
threaten, turn out, undertake, want, wish
+ ING-FORM
These verbs are followed by an ing-form.
admit, avoid, cant face, can't help, can't resist, can't stand,
carry on, consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, enjoy, excuse,
fancy, finish, give up, imagine, involve, justify, keep {on),
mention, mind , postpone, practise, put off, resent, risk, save,
suggest, tolerate
After like, love, prefer and hate, we can use either a to infinitive
or an ing-form. The meaning is the same.
Mrs Miles likes to do/likes doing parachute jumps.
She loves to look/loves looking down at the fields below.
We always prefer to stay/prefer staying in small hotels.
I hate to stand/hate standing up while I'm eating.
But compare these two meanings of the verb like.
LIKE TO DO
Like takes a to-infinitive when it means that we prefer to do
something even though we may not enjoy it.
I like to check my work carefully before I hand it in.
LIKE DOING
Like usually takes an ing-form when we use it to talk about
hobbies and interests.
Claire likes skiing.
I don't like swimming much,
After would like, would love, would prefer and would hate,
we use a to-infinitive but not usually an ing-form.
I'd like to do a parachute jump one day. My sister would love to work as an artist.
Mark would prefer to drive rather than take the train. I'm glad I live here. I'd hate
to live in a big tit):
Compare would like and like.
I'd like to lie on the beach today. It's too hot to do anything else. I'd like means 'I
want', but it is more polite.
I like lying on the beach. I always spend my holidays sunbathing.
I like means the same as 'I enjoy‘
Start, intend, etc
We can use either a to-infinitive or an ing-form after these verbs: begin, bother,
continue, intend, propose (= intend), start
People began to leave/began leaving the theatre before the end of the play.
Rachel didn't bother to do/bother doing the washing-up. Do you intend to
make/intend making a complaint?
The meaning is the same.
We do not usually have two ing-forms together.
It was starting to get dark, NOT It was-starting-getting dark.
Exercise: Complete the sentences using the words
in brackets.
► Mark: I've always wanted to visit San Francisco.
Sarah: Me too. I'd love to visit (I'd love) it some time.
1 Harriet: Tom seems to enjoy watching football matches.
David: Yes,……………………………………………………………………………….. (he loves) United pla
2 Trevor: I'm glad I don't work as late as Sarah does.
Laura: Me too ................................................................. (1 wouldn't like) such long hour
3 Matthew: I think I'll go and see this new film.
Emma: Can I go with you?..................................……………………….. (I'd like) it, to(
4 Rachel: Do you want to come with me or wait here?
Vicky: ..................................................................................... . (I'd prefer) with you if that's OB
5 Laura: I think queuing is my least favourite activity.
Tom: I agree ..............................................................................................…………... (I hate,
6 Claire: Does Mark cook for you?
Sarah: No, not often.......................................………………………. (he doesn't like"
7 Reporter: Have you ever flown in a hot-air balloon?
Mrs Miles: No, but .................................................................. ……… (I 'd love) in one someday;
8 Rachel: Did you say you're having your teeth looked at today?
Emma: Yes, .................................................................................. (I like) them checked once a year.
3.2.12. Adjective+ Infinitive
We can use a to-infinitive (e.g. to be) after an adjective (e.g.
great).
An adjective + to-infinitive often comes in this structure with it +
be.
It's important to look in the mirror. It's lovely to see you. It's
quite safe to use the ladder. It was silly to make such a fuss.
The subject can also be a person.
I'm delighted to see you. We're ready to start now.
Compare these two sentences. They both mean the same thing.
It is easy to drive the car.
The car is easy to drive.
We do not use it in the second sentence.
We can use this structure with adjectives meaning 'good' or bad',
e.g. awful, bad, exciting, fascinating, good, marvellous, nice,
terrible, wonderful. We can also use it with these adjectives:
cheap, convenient,
dangerous, difficult, easy, expensive, impossible, safe, simple.
After some adjectives we can use for + object + to-infinitive.
It's important for drivers to take care. It isn't safe for
children to play on ladders.
After an adjective describing how someone behaves (e.g.
polite, silly), we can use of.
It was polite of Emma to write and thank us. (Emma was
polite.) It was silly of me to forget the tickets. (I was silly.)
Exercise: Write sentences with it and an adjective
followed by a to-infinitive.
► Buy a Compex computer. It isn't expensive. It isn't
expensive to buy a Compex computer.
1. Using the computer is very simple.
It's very
...........................................................................................
2. Understanding the handbook isn't difficult.
It isn't
..............................................................................................
3. You can run any kind of software. It's easy.
4. Exploring the world of Compex is absolutely fascinating.
5. Try the ultimate computer experience. Are you ready?
3.2.13. Used to do something, Be used to
do something
Used to do
Used + to-infinitive means that something happened regularly or went on
for a time in the past. I used to travel means that in the past I regularly
travelled, but I no longer do so.
Here are some more examples.
We used to play that game when we were younger.
Nick used to smoke, but he gave it up. I used to like fish, but I never eat
it now.
There used to be a dancehall here, but they knocked it down.
We normally use didn't use to in negatives and did ... use to in questions.
We didn't use to have computers, OR We never used to have
computers.
Where did people use to buy their food before the supermarket was
built?
Did you use to live in London?
Be used to doing
Be used to + ing-form means that something is familiar and is no
longer strange. I'm used to travelling means that travelling is no
longer strange or difficult because I have done it for so long.
Here are some more examples.
We're used to getting up early. We do it every day. NOT We're
used to get up early.
Sarah is used to working late at the office. Most visitors to
Britain aren't used to driving on the left.
I wasn't used to wearing glasses. It seemed very strange at
first.
We can also say get used to to talk about things becoming more
familiar.
It was difficult at first, but Mike soon got used to working at
night. After her husband died, the old woman had to get used
to living on her own.
Exercise: Put in a to-infinitive or to + ing-form. Use
the verbs in brackets.
? When I was a child, I used to dream (dream) of being an astronaut.
? I'm terribly nervous. I'm not used to speaking (speak) to a large audience.
1. It took us ages to get used ................................... (live) in a block of flats.
2. Lots of trains used......................................... (stop) here, but not many
do now.
3. Didn't Nick use......................................... (work) on a building site?
4. There didn't use........................................ (be) so many soap operas on
television.
5. I'll have an orange juice, please. I'm not used………………………… . (drink)
alcohol.
6. David doesn't seem to mind being in hospital. I suppose he's got used
………………………… (be) there.
7. When Laura was at college, she used............................(have) a picture of
Elvis Presley on her
bedroom wall.
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