14:332:331
Computer Architecture and Assembly Language
Spring 06
Week 4: Addressing Mode, Assembler, Linker
[Adapted from Dave Patterson’s UCB CS152 slides and
Mary Jane Irwin’s PSU CSE331 slides]
331 Week 4.1
Spring 2006
MIPS (SPIM) Assembler Syntax

Comments begin with #. Everything from # to the
end of the line is ignored.

Identifiers are a sequence of alphanumeric
characters, underbars (_), and dots (.) that do not
begin with a number.

Labels are declared by putting them at the
beginning of a line followed by a colon.
item:
main:
331 Week 4.2
.data
.word 1
.text
.global main
# Must be global
lw
$t0, item
Spring 2006
SPIM supported MIPS directive

.align n
align the next datum on a 2n byte
boundary.

.ascii str
store the string str in mem, but
do not null-terminate it.

.asciiz str
store the string str in mem, but nullterminate it.

.byte b1, …, bn store the n values in successive bytes of
memory.

.data <addr>

.double d1,…,dn store the n floating-point double
precision numbers in successive
memory locations.
331 Week 4.3
subsequent items are stored in the data
segment. If the optional argument addr
is present, subsequent items are stored
starting at address addr.
Spring 2006
SPIM supported MIPS directive (cont’d)

.extern sym size Declare that the datum stored at sym is
size bytes large and is a global label.

.float f1,…,fn
store the n floating-point single
precision numbers in successive
memory locations.

.global sym
Declare that label sym is global and can
be referenced from other files.

.half h1, …, hn store the n 16-bit quantities in
successive memory halfwords.

.kdata <addr>
subsequent items are stored in the
kernel data segment. If the optional
argument addr is present, subsequent
items are stored starting at addr.

.ktext <addr>
Subsequent items are put in the kernel
text segment. If the optional argument
addr is present, subsequent items are
stored starting at addr.
331 Week 4.4
Spring 2006
SPIM supported MIPS directive (cont’d)

.set no at
It prevents SPIM from complaining about
subsequent instructions that use
register $at.

.set no at
It prevents SPIM from complaining about
subsequent instructions that use
register $at.

.space n
Allocate n bytes of space in the current
segment (which must be data segment
in SPIM)

.text <addr>
Subsequent items are put in the text
segment. If the optional argument addr
is present, subsequent items are stored
starting at addr.

.word w1,…,wn
store the n 32-bit quantities in
successive memory words.
331 Week 4.5
Spring 2006
Branching Far Away

What if the branch destination is further away than
can be captured in 16 bits?
beq
331 Week 4.6
$s0, $s1, L1
Spring 2006
Dealing with Constants

Small constants are used quite frequently (often
50% of operands)
e.g.,

Solutions? Why not?



put “typical constants” in memory and load them
create hard-wired registers (like $zero) for constants
Allow for MIPS instructions like
addi
slti
andi
ori

A = A + 5;
B = B + 1;
C = C - 18;
$sp,
$t0,
$t0,
$t0,
$sp,
$t1,
$t0,
$t0,
4
10
6
4
How do we make this work?
331 Week 4.7
Spring 2006
Immediate Operands


MIPS immediate instructions:
addi $sp, $sp, 4
#$sp = $sp + 4
slti $t0, $s2, 15
#$t0 = 1 if $s2<15
Machine format:
op

rs
rt
16 bit immediate
8
29
29
4
10
18
8
15
I format
The constant is kept inside the instruction itself!


331 Week 4.8
I format – Immediate format
Limits immediate values to the range +215–1 to -215
Spring 2006
How About Larger Constants?

We'd also like to be able to load a 32 bit constant
into a register

Must use two instructions, new "load upper
immediate" instruction
lui $t0, 1010101010101010
16

0
8
1010101010101010
Then must get the lower order bits right, i.e.,
ori $t0, $t0, 1010101010101010
331 Week 4.9
1010101010101010
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
1010101010101010
Spring 2006
MIPS Addressing Modes

Register addressing – operand is in a register

Base (displacement) addressing – operand is at
the memory location whose address is the sum of
a register and a 16-bit constant contained within
the instruction

Immediate addressing – operand is a 16-bit
constant contained within the instruction

PC-relative addressing –instruction address is the
sum of the PC and a 16-bit constant contained
within the instruction

Pseudo-direct addressing – instruction address is
the 26-bit constant contained within the instruction
concatenated with the upper 4 bits of the PC
331 Week 4.10
Spring 2006
Addressing Modes Illustrated
1. Register addressing
op
rs
rt
rd
funct
Register
word operand
2. Base addressing
op
rs
rt
offset
Memory
word or byte operand
base register
3. Immediate addressing
op
rs
rt
operand
4. PC-relative addressing
op
rs
rt
offset
Memory
branch destination instruction
Program Counter (PC)
5. Pseudo-direct addressing
op
Memory
jump address
||
jump destination instruction
Program Counter (PC)
331 Week 4.11
Spring 2006
Design Principles

Simplicity favors regularity



Smaller is faster




limited instruction set
limited number of registers in register file
limited number of addressing modes
Good design demands good compromises


fixed size instructions – 32-bits
small number of instruction formats
three instruction formats
Make the common case fast


331 Week 4.12
arithmetic operands from the register file (load-store
machine)
allow instructions to contain immediate operands
Spring 2006
Review: MIPS ISA, so far
Category
Instr
Op Code
Example
Meaning
Arithmetic
add
0 and 32
add $s1, $s2, $s3
$s1 = $s2 + $s3
(R & I
format)
subtract
0 and 34
sub $s1, $s2, $s3
$s1 = $s2 - $s3
Data
Transfer
(I format)
Cond.
Branch (I &
R format)
Uncond.
Jump
(J &
R format)
331 Week 4.13
add immediate
8
addi $s1, $s2, 6
$s1 = $s2 + 6
or immediate
13
ori $s1, $s2, 6
$s1 = $s2 v 6
load word
35
lw
$s1, 24($s2)
$s1 = Memory($s2+24)
store word
43
sw $s1, 24($s2)
Memory($s2+24) = $s1
load byte
32
lb
$s1, 25($s2)
$s1 = Memory($s2+25)
store byte
40
sb
$s1, 25($s2)
Memory($s2+25) = $s1
load upper imm
15
lui
$s1, 6
$s1 = 6 * 216
br on equal
4
beq $s1, $s2, L
if ($s1==$s2) go to L
br on not equal
5
bne $s1, $s2, L
if ($s1 !=$s2) go to L
set on less than
0 and 42
slt
if ($s2<$s3) $s1=1 else
$s1=0
set on less than
immediate
10
slti $s1, $s2, 6
if ($s2<6) $s1=1 else
$s1=0
jump
2
j
2500
go to 10000
jump register
0 and 8
jr
$t1
go to $t1
jump and link
3
jal
2500
go to 10000; $ra=PC+4
$s1, $s2, $s3
Spring 2006
The Code Translation Hierarchy
C program
compiler
assembly code
assembler
object code
library routines
linker
machine code
executable
loader
memory
331 Week 4.14
Spring 2006
Compiler

Transforms the C program into an assembly
language program

Advantages of high-level languages



many fewer lines of code
easier to understand and debug
Today’s optimizing compilers can produce
assembly code nearly as good as an assembly
language programming expert and often better for
large programs

331 Week 4.15
good – smaller code size, faster execution
Spring 2006
Assembler

Transforms symbolic assembler code into object (machine)
code

Advantages of assembly language




Programmer has more control compared to higher level
language
much easier than remembering instruction binary codes
can use labels for addresses – and let the assembler do the
arithmetic
can use pseudo-instructions
- e.g., “move $t0, $t1” exists only in assembler (would be
implemented using “add $t0,$t1,$zero”)

However, must remember that machine language is the
underlying reality


e.g., destination is no longer specified first
And, when considering performance, you should count real
instructions executed, not code size
331 Week 4.16
Spring 2006
Other Tasks of the Assembler

Determines binary addresses corresponding to all labels

keeps track of labels used in branches and data transfer
instructions in a symbol table
- pairs of symbols and addresses

Converts pseudo-instructions to legal assembly code

register $at is reserved for the assembler to do this

Converts branches to far away locations into a branch followed
by a jump

Converts instructions with large immediates into a load upper
immediate followed by an or immediate

Converts numbers specified in decimal and hexidecimal into
their binary equivalents

Converts characters into their ASCII equivalents
331 Week 4.17
Spring 2006
Typical Object File Pieces

Object file header: size and position of following pieces

Text module: assembled object (machine) code

Data module: data accompanying the code


static data - allocated throughout the program
dynamic data - grows and shrinks as needed by the program

Relocation information: identifies instructions (data) that use
(are located at) absolute addresses – those that are not
relative to a register (e.g., jump destination addr) – when the
code and data is loaded into memory

Symbol table: remaining undefined labels (e.g., external
references)

Debugging information
Object file
header
331 Week 4.18
text
segment
data
segment
relocation symbol
information
table
debugging
information
Spring 2006
MIPS (spim) Memory Allocation
Memory
Mem Map I/O
$sp
fffffffc
Kernel Code
& Data
8000 0080
7f f e f f fc
Stack
230
words
Dynamic data
$gp
Static data
1000 8000 ( 1004 0000)
1000 0000
Your
Code
PC
331 Week 4.19
0040 0000
Reserved
0000 0000
Spring 2006
Process that produces an executable file
Source file
compiler + assembler
object file
Source file
compiler + assembler
object file
linker
object file
program
library
Source file
331 Week 4.20
compiler + assembler
Executable
file
Spring 2006
Linker

Takes all of the independently assembled code segments and
“stitches” (links) them together


Much faster to patch code and recompile and reassemble that
patched routine, than it is to recompile and reassemble the entire
program
Decides on memory allocation pattern for the code and data
modules of each segment

remember, segments were assembled in isolation so each assumes
its code’s starting location is 0x0040 0000 and its static data starting
location is 0x1000 0000

Absolute addresses must be relocated to reflect the new starting
location of each code and data module

Uses the symbol table information to resolve all remaining
undefined labels

331 Week 4.21
branches, jumps, and data addresses to external segments
Spring 2006
Loader
object file
sub:
object file
.
.
.
main:
instructions
Relocation
records
jal
.
.
.
jal
???
main:
jal
.
.
.
jal
???
call, sub
call, printf
linker
sub
printf
printf:
.
.
.
sub:
C library
printf:
.
.
.
331 Week 4.22
executable file
.
.
.
Spring 2006
Loader

Loads (copies) the executable code now stored on disk into
memory at the starting address specified by the operating
system

Initializes the machine registers and sets the stack pointer to
the first free location (0x7ffe fffc)

Copies the parameters (if any) to the main routine onto the
stack

Jumps to a start-up routine (at PC addr 0x0040 0000 on
xspim) that copies the parameters into the argument
registers and then calls the main routine of the program with
a jal main
331 Week 4.23
Spring 2006