Anatomy
Final Exam
Review
Why do atoms bond to each other?
• To become more stable.
• To fill their valence shell.
• To share / exchange valence electrons.
What are valence electrons?
• The outermost electrons of an atom.
What are the 4 types of
biomolecules?
•
•
•
•
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
What is the function of
carbohydrates?
• Short term energy storage
What is the function of lipids?
• Long Term Energy Storage
• Cell Membranes
What is the function of Proteins?
• Express Genetic Information
• Catalyze Reactions
What is hemoglobin?
• A type of protein in blood which binds with
oxygen.
What is homeostasis?
• The maintenance of internal stability in
organisms/cells.
What is diffusion?
• The movement of molecules from HIGH to
LOW concentration.
• Across a concentration gradient.
• Until equilibrium is reached.
What is ATP?
• An energy storing molecule.
Where does energy store its
energy?
• Phosphate bonds.
How can you release stored
energy from ATP?
• Remove 1 phosphate
• ATP  ADP
Describe an Unconscious
Nervous-System Pathway:
•
•
•
•
•
Sensory Division
Central Nervous System
Motor Division
Autonomic Nervous System
Parasympathetic or Sympathetic
What’s the difference between the
Parasympathetic and Sympathetic
Pathways?
• Parasympathetic:
– Not Feelings
– Involuntary organ movement/response
• Sympathetic
– Feelings
– Fight or Flight
Describe a Conscious NervousSystem Pathway:
•
•
•
•
Sensory Division
Central Nervous System
Motor Division
Somatic Pathway
What happens in a Nerve
Impulse?
• Neurotransmitter is released from adjacent
neuron-axon-terminals
• K+ pumps open  K+ moves into cell
• Na+ pumps open  Na+ moves into cell
What is hyperopia?
• Farsightedness
• Cornea too flat
• Light underfocused
What is myopia?
• Nearsightedness
• Bulging cornea
• Light overfocused
Which types of lenses would fix
farsightedness?
• Thicker in middle
• Light would be focused before hitting
cornea
• Results in Double-Focusing
Which types of lenses would fix
Nearsightedness?
• Thinner in middle
• Light rays would be spread out before
reaching cornea
• Results in decreased focusing of light
What does the Broca’s Area of
the brain control?
• Formulation of complex language
Describe the traveling of sound
waves to your cochlea:
• Sound waves hit tympanic membrane (ear
drum)
• Membrane vibrates
• Hammer, Anvil and Stirrup Vibrate
• Triggers vibration of oval window on
cochlea
How do you smell?
• Organic molecules (scent molecules)
dissolve in mucus lining of nose
• Molecules bind to olfactory receptor hairs
Where do you taste sour foods?
• Sour = Acidic = Hydrogen Ions
• Sides of Tongue
Where do you taste sweet
foods?
• Sweet = Sugars
• Front / Tip of tongue
Where do you taste bitter foods?
• Bitter = Alkaloid
• Very back of tongue
Where do you taste salty foods?
• Salt = Metal
• Front-Sides of Tongue
What is an embolus?
• Free floating clot in a blood vessel.
Which region interprets
language?
Parietal Lobe
Which region maintains visual
and auditory memory?
Temporal Lobe
Which region coordinates
muscle movement?
• Cerebellum
Which region triggers muscle
movement?
• Frontal Lobe
Which region maintains
homeostasis and fight or flight
emotions?
• Brain Stem…
• Pons, Medulla, MidBrain
Which region maintains fluid ion
levels, controls sleep and body
temperature?
• Thalamus & Hypothalamus
Which structure contains dark
pigments which contain light w/in
the eye?
#8 -- Choroid
Which structure determines your
eyesight?
• #1 -- Cornea
Which structure contracts and
relaxes to control the amount of
light entering the eye?
• #4 -- Iris
Which part is not really a
structure, but allows light to
pass into the eye?
• #5 -- Pupil
What is the substance that
maintains eye pressure?
• #12 -- Humor
Which part of your ear is the ear
drum?
• Tympanic Membrane
Which part of your ear vibrates
the oval window?
• Hammer, Anvil, Stirrup
Which part of your ear contains
fluid and receptor hairs to
maintain equilibrium?
• Cochlea
List out the correct pathway of
the Intrinsic Conduction System:
•
•
•
•
•
SA NODE
AV NODE
AV Bundle
Bundle Branches
Purkinje Fibers
List out the events in
Hemostasis (Blood clotting):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Collagen fibers exposed
Platelets adhere to fibers
Platelets release serotonin
Thromboplastin released from damaged vessel
cells
PF3 binds with Thromboplastin + Calcium
Prothrombin converted to Thrombin
Fibrin forms mesh-like trap
Vessels constrict and ruptured edges are closed
How do leukocytes recognize
foreign cells?
• Positive chemostaxis
How do leukocytes move across
blood vessel walls?
• diapedesis
What is a heartbeat?
• The closing of the AV valves and the
semilunar valves.
What is hypertension?
• High blood pressure
• 140 and over (systolic reading)
What is hypotension?
• Low blood pressure
• 100 and under (systolic reading)
What is the pulmonary circuit?
• Cardiovascular Pathway
• Carries deoxygenated blood
What is the systemic circuit?
• Cardiovascular pathway
• Carries oxygenated blood
What happens when you exhale?
• Diaphragm relaxes
• Thoracic cavity decreases in size
• Higher pressure in lungs causes air to flow
outwards
What happens when you inhale?
• Diaphragm contracts
• Thoracic cavity increases in size
• Lower pressure in lungs causes air to flow
inwards
What is anemia?
•
•
•
•
Oxygen not getting to tissues
Low red blood cell count
Low hemoglobin concentration
Damaged red blood cells
Describe the pathway of blood
through the heart:
• Deoxygenated blood  Right Atrium 
Right Ventricle  Pulmonary Artery
• Oxygenated Blood  Left Atrium  Left
Ventricle  Aorta
What is diastole?
• Relaxation of heart
What is systole?
• Contraction of heart
Which parts are included in the
axial skeleton?
•
•
•
•
Skull
Vertebral column
Rib cage
Center of pelvis
Which parts are included in the
appendicular skeleton?
•
•
•
•
Arms
Legs
Hips, shoulders
Edges of pelvis
What is the function of long
bones?
• Weight Bearing
What is the function of irregular
bones?
• Connect muscles, tendons and ligaments
What is the function of flat
bones?
• Protection
What is the function of short
bones?
• Increase mobility
What is the function of bones in
general?
•
•
•
•
•
Support
Protection
Movement
Mineral + hormone storage
Blood cell formation (marrow)
Know this!
What can cause bone injury?
•
•
•
•
Increased weight
Twisting
Rotating
Bending
What is a greenstick fracture?
• An incomplete break of the bone, common
in children.
What is a depressed fracture?
• A typical type of skull fracture.
What is a compressed fracture?
• When bone crushes into hundreds of
pieces (common in porous bone).
What is a spiral fracture?
• A ragged break as a result of excessive
twisting forces.
What is a comminuted fracture?
• When the bone breaks into 3 or more
pieces.
What is an epiphyseal fracture?
• A fracture along the epiphyseal line where
cartilage cells are deteriorating.
Why is the fibrocartilaginous-callus
stage of bone repair so important?
• Excess blood and bone cells are removed
• Allows for following repair stages
List the vertebral regions from
superior to inferior:
•
•
•
•
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
What is the purpose of joints in
the body?
• Allows for circular movement
• Allows for angular movement
• Reduces rigidity of the body
List the events in a muscle
contraction:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Depolarization of sarcolemma
Calcium released from sarcop. Reticulum
Calcium bines with tropomyosin
Conformation change of tropomyosin
Exposure of actin
Myosin attaches to actin
Actin + Myosin slide together
Release of actin + ATP
Calcium sent back to sarcop. Reticulum
Tropomyosin changes back
Which bones make up your arms?
• Humerus
• Radius
• Ulna
Which bones make up your legs?
• Femur
• Tibia
• Fibula
What is your upper jaw?
• maxilla
What is your lower jaw?
• mandible
What do your ribs connect to?
• Vetebral column
• sternum
What ruins mummification?
• bacteria
Which biomolecules are broken
down in the oral cavity?
• carbohydrates
Which biomolecules are broken
down in the esophagus?
• None
Which biomolecules are broken
down in the stomach?
• Proteins
• Carbohydrates
• NOT Lipids
Which biomolecules are broken
down in the duodenum?
•
•
•
•
•
ALL OF THEM
CARBS
LIPIDS
PROTEINS
NUCLEIC ACIDS
What do bacteria do in your colon?
• Metabolize inorganic compounds
• Produce vitamins
Know This!!
List the Digestive Organs from
Beginning to End:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Oral Cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Cecum
Ascending—transverse—descending colon
Rectum + anus
What makes you have to go poop?
• Descending colon 
• Involuntary sphincter 
• Voluntary sphincter!
What does your duodenum do?
• Neutralizes food
• Metabolizes all biomolecules
• Releases bile and pancreatic juice
Which solutions does your
duodenum secrete?
• Bile
• Pancreatic Juice:
– Chymotrypsin & Peptidase
– Nuclease
– Lipase
– Amylase
• Bicarbonate
Which solutions does your
jejunum secrete?
• Muccin
• Lysozyme
Which solutions does your
stomach secrete?
• Gastrin
• Gastric Juice  HCl
What are bile salts for?
• Emulsify lipids
Know This!!