AP European History Unit 4 - Scientific Revolution And
AP European History
Unit 4 - Scientific Revolution And Enlightenment and 18 th Century Economy and Society
Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
The Scientific Revolution
Medieval view of the world
Primarily religious and theological
Political theory based on divine right of kings
Society largely governed by Church views, traditions, and practices
Superstition played major role in the lives of the people
Scientific thought in the early-16th century was still based on Medieval ideas
Views about the universe were largely influenced by the ancient ideas of Aristotle
The geocentric view held that the earth was the center of a static, motionless universe
Science was essentially a branch of theology
Causes of the Scientific Revolution
Medieval universities provided the framework.
By 1300, philosophy had become an accepted discipline (in addition to law, medicine, and theology).
Medieval philosophers developed a degree of independence from theologians and a sense of free inquiry.
Leading universities established new professorships of mathematics, astronomy, and physics
(natural philosophy) within their departments of philosophy.
Major scientific figures either studied or taught at universities.
The Renaissance stimulated science by rediscovering ancient mathematics.
Renaissance patronage was often scientific as well as artistic and humanistic.
Navigational problems on sea voyages in the age of overseas expansion created a need for scientific advances
New instruments: telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and air pump.
Gresham College, England: scientists worked closely with top officials in the Royal Navy and leading merchants and shipbuilders.
Became main center of scientific activity during the first half of 17th century.
Scientific methodology.
Bacon formalized empirical, experimental research.
Descartes emphasized deductive reasoning.
The Scientific Revolution became the major cause of the new world view of the 17th and 18th centuries
Secularism emerged and many educated people became openly hostile to religion
The revolution in learning became a major foundation in Western society
The 16th Century
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres (1543)
Copernicus postponed publication of his book fearing a backlash by the scientific community
He dedicated the book to Pope Paul III and did not intend for his theories to challenge Church doctrine
Heliocentric view: argued that the earth revolved around the Sun and that the sun was the center of the universe
Stated that the stars did not move although the apparent movement of the stars was the result of the earth’s rotation
The universe now seemed enormous, perhaps infinite
A major anomaly in his theory, retrograde motion of planets relative to the earth’s position, was remedied by the false premise of epicycles
Directly challenged Ptolemy’s 2nd-century A.D. view of a geocentric universe
Seemed to challenge the Bible’s Book of Genesis that also put forth a geocentric view
Religious reaction to the Copernican theory
Martin Luther and John Calvin condemned Copernicus’ theory; pointed to Biblical passages supporting the Medieval view
Catholic reaction initially less forceful as the Church didn’t always interpret the Bible literally
By 1616, the Catholic Church proclaimed the Copernican theory as false and persecuted those who advanced his views (e.g. Galileo)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Europe’s leading astronomer in the late-16th century
Built the best observatory in Europe and collected massive data on his observations of the universe
This data became a cornerstone of astronomy for centuries
His data later proved Copernicus’ theory
Ironically, Brahe did not accept the Copernican theory; he believed that while the planets all revolved around the sun, the sun revolved around the earth.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
First great Protestant scientist; assistant to Brahe
Mathematically proved the Copernican theory
Developed three laws of planetary motion:
Orbits of planets are elliptical
Planets do not move at uniform speed while in their orbits
The time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sun.
The closer the planet to the sun (e.g. Mercury and Venus) the faster its orbit
The 17th Century
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Developed the laws of motion
Used the experimental method (with controlled experiments)
Acceleration experiment: gravity was a universal force that produced uniform acceleration
All falling objects descend with equal velocity regardless of their weight
Law of inertia: an object that is in motion remains in motion until it is stopped by some external force
Validated Copernicus’ heliocentric view with the aid of a telescope
Galileo was the first to use the telescope as a scientific instrument; he built one himself
Demonstrated that the moon and other planets were not perfectly round like a crystal sphere
(the prevailing Medieval view)
Discovered the 4 moons of Jupiter thus refuting the notion that Jupiter was embedded in an impenetrable crystal sphere
Galileo’s findings became controversial in Catholic countries
His views were largely supported in Protestant northern Europe where reformers had questioned Catholic doctrines
The Catholic Church in 1616 declared Copernican theory to be heretical
1632, Galileo published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in which he wrote about the Copernican system as a mathematical proposition
1633, The inquisition of Pope Urban VII forced Galileo to retract his support of the
Copernican theory
He remained under house arrest for the rest of his life
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Formalized the empirical method (or empiricism) that had already been used by Brahe and
Galileo
Inductive method for scientific experimentation:
Begin with inductive observation, then form a hypothesis, conduct experiments and then organize the data.
“Renounce notions and begin to form an acquaintance with things”
Bacon’s inductive method, coupled with Descartes deductive reason formed the backbone of the modern scientific method.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Discourse on Method advocated the use of deductive reasoning.
Employed deductive reasoning to prove his existence: “cogito ergo sum” (“I think; therefore, I am”)
His proof depended on logic alone
Believed science must: start with clear and incontrovertible facts subdivide each problem into as many parts as necessary, using a step-by-step logical sequence
Demonstrated the relationship between algebra and geometry
Developed analytical geometry
Cartesian Dualism divided all existence into the spiritual and the material.
The spiritual can only be examined through deductive reasoning (logic)
The material is subject to the experimental method.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Incorporated the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo into an overarching theory explaining order and design to the universe.
Principle of universal gravitation:
Detailed in Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, (1687) (known more popularly as
Principia).
Perhaps the greatest book on science ever written
Natural laws of motion – gravitation – are evident in the movement of heavenly bodies and earthly objects
Newton developed a set of mathematical principles to explain motion.
Every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship
Since these natural laws are unchangeable and predictable, God’s active participation in the natural world is not needed to explain the forces of nature
This directly challenged Medieval beliefs
This view came to be the foundation of the Enlightenment view of God: deism
Invented calculus (although Leibniz also claimed to have done so)
Anatomy, physiology, and biology
Scientists began challenging Greco-Roman medical views (especially those of the Roman physician, Galen in the 2nd century AD)
Vesalius: The Structure of the Human Body (1543): renewed and modernized the study of human anatomy
William Harvey (1578-1657)
On the Movement of the Heart and Blood (1628): Explained how blood was pumped by the heart and circulated throughout the body.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
“Father of microscopy”: developed powerful microscopes
First to see and write about bacteria, yeast plants, living organisms in a drop of water and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries.
Royal scientific societies
Governments/monarchs encouraged scientific inquiry as a means to further the prestige of the state and remain at the cutting edge of technology
Scientific societies created a means by which scientists could communicate with each other internationally; this helped forge an international scientific community
The Royal Society in England was perhaps the most successful and prestigious; founded in
1660
Other royal societies were created in Naples, France, Prussia (by Frederick I) and Russia (by
Peter the Great).
Impact of the Scientific Revolution on Society
Led directly to the Enlightenment of the 18th century
Improvements in exploration (e.g. John Harrison’s chronometer gave mariners the ability to easily determine longitude by the late-18th century)
Spirit of experimentation perhaps helped accelerate the agricultural revolution—18th century
Improvements in medical knowledge helped improve the quality of life later (19th & 20th centuries)
Reduced support for witch hunts by discrediting superstition and witchcraft as fallacies.
Science and religion were not in acute conflict until the 19th and 20th centuries.
No attempt in 17th and 18th centuries to secularize science
Scientists believed they were studying and analyzing God’s creation.
Universal agreement among scientists and philosophers regarding the supernatural origin of the universe.
Debate centered on the extent to which God continued to be involved in his Creation.
After Catholic Counter Reformation, the Church became more hostile to science and science declined in Italy (but not France).
Protestant countries became the leaders of the scientific revolution, especially England
The Enlightenment
Emergence of a secular world view for the first time in human history
Fundamental notion was that natural science and reason could explain all aspects of life
Belief in autonomy of man’s intellect apart from God.
Most basic assumption: faith in reason rather than faith in revelation
Deism: religious arm of the Enlightenment
Existence of God was a rational explanation of the universe and its form.
God was a deistic Creator—a cosmic clockmaker— who created the universe and then stepped back and left it running like a clock
The universe was governed by “natural law”, not by a personal God
Some called it the “ghost in the machine.”
The supernatural was not involved in human life.
Deism grew out of Newton’s theories regarding natural law.
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677): Philosopher who created a world view in which he equated God and nature.
Belief that the scientific method could explain the laws of society
Progress in society was possible if natural laws and how they applied to society could be understood
Education was seen a key to helping society to progress
John Locke (1632-1704)
Two Treatises of Civil Government, 1690
Philosophical defense for the “Glorious Revolution” in England.
State of nature: humans are basically good but lack protection
This contrasts with Hobbes’ view of humans in a state of nature: nasty and brutish
Governments provide rule of law but only through the consent of the governed
The purpose of government is to protect “natural rights” of the people: life, liberty and property
Right to rebellion: People have a right to abolish a government that doesn’t protect natural rights.
Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690
One of the great works of the Enlightenment, along with Newton’s Principia
Stressed the importance of the environment on human development: Education was the key tabula rasa: the human mind was born as a blank slate and registered input from the senses passively.
Saw all human knowledge as the result of sensory experiences without any preconceived notions
Rejected Descartes’ view that all people are born with certain basic ideas and ways of thinking.
For progress to occur in society, education was critical in determining human development.
Undermined the Christian view that humankind was essentially sinful
The ideal of toleration was popularized by many scholars who made the Enlightenment accessible to the public
Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757)
Made highly complicated scientific ideas accessible to a broad audience.
Stressed the idea of progress.
Skeptical of absolute truth and questioned claims of organized religion.
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706): Critical and Historical Dictionary, 1697
Advocated complete toleration of ideas
A person should be free to worship any religion, or none at all.
Argued that religion and morality were not necessarily linked
He was a skeptic: believed nothing could be known beyond all doubt
Similar to Montaigne’s earlier views
His major criticism was of Christianity and its attempt to impose orthodoxy.
The Philosophes
Committed to fundamental reform in society
They were extremely successful in popularizing the Enlightenment, though were not professional philosophers (like Descartes and Locke)
By 1775, much of western Europe’s educated elite had embraced the Enlightenment
Believed in progress through discovering the natural laws governing nature and human existence.
Radically optimistic about how people should live and govern themselves.
Voltaire (1694-1778)
Perhaps the most influential of all Enlightenment philosophers
He wrote his criticisms with a sharp sarcasm that ridiculed those with whom he disagreed.
Challenged traditional Catholic theology
Strong deist views
Believed prayer and miracles did not fit with natural law
Believed that human reason was the key to progress in society, not religious faith
His social criticism inspired a call for change, setting the stage for the French Revolution
He hated bigotry and injustice and called for religious toleration.
His most famous quote against religious intolerance was “crush the infamous thing”
(“Ecracsez l’infame”)
Although Voltaire was raised as a Christian, he came to distrust organized religion as corrupt in its leadership and for having moved away from the central message of Jesus
Advocated “enlightened despotism” (a more benevolent form of absolutism) believing that people were incapable of governing themselves
These views were similar to Hobbes
His views influenced several “Enlightened Despots” including Frederick the Great of Prussia
(who invited Voltaire to live in his court in Berlin), Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of
Austria and Napoleon of France.
Believed in equality before the law but not in the equality of classes.
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Member of the French nobility; hated the absolutism of Louis XIV.
Spirit of the Laws (1748): called for separation of powers in government into three branches
(monarchy, nobility and the rest of the population)
Goal: prevent tyranny and promote liberty
Principle of checks and balances would ensure that no single branch of gov’t became too powerful as the other two branches could check excess power.
He favored the British system of a monarch, Parliament and independent courts
He supported the 13 parlements in France (judicial tribunals of nobles) as a check against tyrannical absolute rule by the monarch
Montesquieu’s ideas had a significant impact on the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the
French Revolution in the 1780s.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Social Contract (1762)
Believed that too much of an emphasis on property, and not enough consideration of people, was a root cause of social injustice.
The general will, a consensus of the majority, should control a nation.
This strongly implied democracy.
Downside: Minority viewpoints were not recognized.
Though these ideas seem to support democracy, the ambiguous nature of “general will” was later manipulated by dictators to rationalize extreme nationalism and tyranny (e.g.
Robespierre)
Though considered part of the Enlightenment, Rousseau is more accurately seen as a founder of the Romantic Movement.
After the French Revolution, the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason gave way to a glorification of emotion.
Rousseau believed that man in a simpler state of nature was good—a “noble savage”—and was corrupted by the materialism of civilization.
Emile (1762)
Believed in progressive education; learning by doing; self-expression encouraged.
Ironically, he left his 5 illegitimate children in an orphanage instead of educating them.
Denis Diderot (1713-1784): The Encyclopedia (completed in 1765)
Perhaps the greatest and most representative work of the philosophes
Compendium of political and social critiques from various Enlightenment philosophers and authors
Helped to popularize the views of the philosophes
Emphasized science and reason while criticizing religion, intolerance, injustice and tyranny
Sought to teach people to think critically and objectively
The Encyclopedia was banned in France; the pope placed it on the Index of Prohibited Books
Marquis di Beccaria: On Crimes and Punishment (1764)
Sought to humanize criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality before the law
Punishment for a crime should be based rationally on the damage done to society; should not be linked to the religious concept of sin
Opposed death penalty except for serious threats against the state
Opposed torture to extract confessions
His views influenced the Enlightened Despots:
Frederick the Great of Prussia banned torture
Catherine the Great restricted use of torture
Joseph II of Austria banned torture and the death penalty (but not necessarily other harsh punishments)
Economic Theory in the Enlightenment
Francois Quesnay (1694-1774)
Leader of the physiocrats in France who opposed mercantilist policies
Sought to reform the existing agrarian system by instituting laissez faire in agriculture
Believed the French government and nobility had too much control over land which stifled agricultural production
Adam Smith (1727-90): Wealth of Nations (1776)
Considered the “Bible” of capitalism.
Refined and expanded laissez-faire philosophy of the physiocrats.
Believed the economy is governed by the natural laws of supply and demand.
In a free market economy, competition will encourage producers to manufacture most efficiently in order to sell higher quality, lower cost goods than competitors.
Gov’t regulation only interferes with this natural self-governing style.
Women in the Enlightenment
Women played a major role in the salon movement
Many of the brightest minds of the Enlightenment assembled in salons to discuss the major issues of the day
Certain women organized salons and took part in the discussions
Madame de Geoffren
Madame de Staël
Louise de Warens
Geoffren played a major role in patronizing Diderot’s Encyclopedia
Madame de Staël later brought German romantic ideas into France in the early 1800s
The philosophes favored increased rights and education for women
In England, Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) promoted political & educational equality for women
Later Enlightenment (late 18th century)
Became more skeptical (and in the case of Hume and d’Holbach, even atheistic)
Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-89) System of Nature
Argued humans were essentially like machines, completely determined by outside forces
(determinism).
His staunch atheism, determinism and attacks on Christianity undermined the Enlightenment
David Hume (1711-1776)
Argued against faith in both natural law and faith
As a skeptic, Hume claimed that human ideas were merely the result of sensory experiences; thus, human reason could not go beyond what was experienced through the senses.
Undermined Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason.
Jean de Condorcet (1743-1794) Progress of the Human Mind
His utopian ideas also undermined the legitimacy of Enlightenment ideas.
Identified 9 stages of human progress that had already occurred and predicted the 10th stage would bring perfection.
Rousseau: attacked rationalism and civilization as destroying rather than liberating the individual.
Influenced early Romantic movement
Believed in a more loving and personal god
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment
Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge.
Science could describe nature, it could not provide a guide for morality.
“Categorical imperative” was an intuitive instinct, placed by God in the human conscience.
Yet, both ethical sense and aesthetic appreciation in human beings were beyond knowledge of science.
Reason is a function of the mind and has no content in and of itself.
Classical Liberalism
The political outgrowth of the Enlightenment
Belief in liberty of the individual and equality before the law (but NOT democracy)
“Natural rights” philosophy played a profound role in the American and French Revolutions of the late-18th century
Impact of Locke and Montesquieu was clearly evident in the American Constitution and in the
French Declaration of the Rights of Man
Rousseau’s idea of the “general will” influenced the French Revolution after 1791.
Belief in laissez faire capitalism (Adam Smith)
Government should not interfere in the economy
Opposite of mercantilism
Belief in progress (through reason and education), human dignity and human happiness
Religious toleration, freedom of speech & the press, just punishments for crimes, and equal treatment before the law
New Christian groups opposed the Enlightenment
The secular and deist views of the Enlightenment caused a reaction among some Christian leaders who believed Christian spirituality was on the decline
Saw traditional religions as having lost their spiritual and emotional zeal
German pietism: argued need for spiritual conversion and religious experience
Methodism: taught need for spiritual regeneration and a moral life that would demonstrate one’s having been “born-again”.
John Wesley (1703-91): Founder of Methodism
Jansenism (Catholic sect) in France argued against idea of an uninvolved or impersonal God
Earlier persecuted by Louis XIV for their belief in certain Calvinist ideas (e.g. predestination)
Impact of the Enlightenment on society
Emergence of a secular world view of the universe (for the first time in Western history)
Enlightened despotism in Prussia, Russia, Austria and France (Napoleon)
American and French Revolutions (as a result of classical liberalism)
Educational reform in various countries
Growth of laissez faire capitalism in the 19th century during the early industrial revolution in
England and in 19th-century America
Enlightened Despotism (c. 1740-1790)
The philosophes inspired and supported the reforms of the Enlightened Despots
Believed absolute rulers should promote the good of the people
Yet believed, like Hobbes earlier, that people were not capable of ruling themselves
Reforms of the Enlightenment were modest
Religious toleration
Streamlined legal codes
Increased access to education
Reduction or elimination of torture and the death penalty
Frederick the Great (Frederick II) (r. 1740-1786)
Background
One of the greatest rulers in German history
Son of Fredrick William I who gave him a strong military education
Profoundly influenced by the Enlightenment
He considered French learning to be superior
Patronized Voltaire and invited him to live in his court in Berlin
Musician and poet
Wars of Frederick the Great
The first 23 years of Frederick’s reign was dominated by warfare
War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
Cause: Frederick invaded and annexed Silesia, part of the Austrian Hapsburg empire
Frederick violated Austria’s Pragmatic Sanction (1713) whereby the Great Powers recognized that Charles VII’s daughter, Maria Theresa, would inherit the entire Hapsburg empire
Prussia efficiently defeated Austria
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle:
Prussia gained Silesia (and doubled Prussia’s population in the process)
Prussia was now recognized as the most powerful of all the German states and as one of
Europe’s “Great Powers”
Seven Years’ War
Cause: Maria Teresa sought to regain Silesia from Prussia and gained Russia and France as allies.
Goal of Austria, Russia and France was to conquer Prussia and divide its territories among the winners
“Diplomatic Revolution of 1756”
France and Austria, traditional enemies, now allied against Prussia
Britain, a traditional ally of Russia, supported Prussia with money (but with few troops); saw
Prussia as a better check on French power than Austria (who had Russia as an ally)
Bloodiest war in Europe since the Thirty Years’ War of the 17th century.
World war that also included England and France’s struggle for North America
Prussia outnumbered by its enemies 15 to 1
Prussia suffered 180,000 dead and severe disruptions to its society
Berlin was twice captured and partially destroyed by Russian troops
Prussia was on the verge of a catastrophic defeat
Russian Czar Peter III (an admirer of Frederick) pulled Russia out of the war in 1763)
This saved Prussia from almost certain defeat
Peter was assassinated and replaced by Catherine II as a result
Treaty of Paris (1763)
Most important peace treaty of the 18th century and most important since the Treaty of
Westphalia (1648)
Prussia permanently retained Silesia
France lost all its colonies in North America to Great Britain
Britain gained more territory in India
Enlightened Reforms of Frederick the Great
Frederick claimed that he saw himself as the “first servant of the state”
The destruction of war encouraged Frederick to help improve society
Yet, Frederick was an absolute ruler
His reforms were mostly intended to increase the power of the state
The peasantry did not really benefit from his reforms
Allowed religious freedom (although less so for Jews)
Jews finally gained religious freedom in 1794, 8 years after Frederick’s death
Promoted education in schools and universities
In reality, gains in primary education were very modest
Codified and streamlined laws
Numerous existing laws from throughout the provinces in the realm were simplified to create a clear unified national code of law
Judicial system became efficient in deciding cases quickly and impartially
Abuses by judicial magistrates were curtailed
Freed the serfs on crown lands in 1763
Frederick’s motive: peasants needed for the army
Serfdom remained in full-force on noble estates although Frederick ordered an end to physical punishment of serfs by their lords
Improved state bureaucracy by requiring examinations for civil servants
Reduced censorship
Abolished capital punishment (but not in the army)
Encouraged immigration
Encouraged industrial and agricultural growth
Social structure in Prussia remained heavily stratified
Serfdom on noble lands maintained
The “Junkers” (Prussian nobility) were the backbone of Prussia’s military and the state
The state did not recognize marriages between nobles and commoners.
Nobles not allowed to sell their lands to non-nobles.
Middle-class found it extremely difficult to move up socially
Civilian bureaucrats were not permitted to enter the nobility
However, in the judicial system, 2/3 of judges were non-nobles.
Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
One of greatest rulers in European history
As a reformer, perhaps the least “enlightened” of the Enlightened Despots
German princess who became Queen after her husband, Peter III, was assassinated during the
Seven Years’ War
She took part in the assassination plot
Peter the Great had abolished the succession of hereditary czars
She was a lover of French culture (she refused to speak German or Russian) and considered herself a child of the Enlightenment
Diderot lived in her court for a time
Pugachev Rebellion (1773)
Eugene Pugachev, a Cossack soldier, led a huge serf uprising.
Demanded end to serfdom, taxes and army service.
Landlords and officials were murdered all over southwestern Russia.
Pugachev eventually captured and executed.
Catherine needed support of nobility and gave them absolute control of serfs.
Serfdom spread to new areas (e.g. Ukraine)
1785, Catherine freed nobles forever from taxes and state service.
Confiscated lands of Russian Orthodox Church and gave them to favorite officials.
Nobles reached their height of position while serfs were worse off than ever before.
Imported western culture into Russia
Architects, artists, musicians and writers were invited to Russia
Culturally, Russia gained the respect of western European countries
Educational reforms
Supported the first private printing presses.
The number of books published annually in Russia increased to about 400 during her reign compared to a few dozen prior to her reign.
A school for noble girls was founded
Restricted the practice of torture
Allowed limited religious toleration
Catherine stopped the government policy of persecuting Old Believers (an ultra-conservative and dissident sect of the Orthodox Church)
Jews were granted civil equality
Jews had suffered much persecution in Russia:
Jews could not be nobles, join guilds or hold political offices
Not allowed to participate in agricultural work or certain trades
Resented by Russian and Ukrainian peasants for usury
Strengthened local government led by elective councils of nobles.
Yet, the crown was not obligated to accept recommendations from councils
Shortcomings of Catherine’s reforms
Only the state and the nobility benefited; the rest of the Russian population benefited little, if at all
Nobles gained more legal and financial security from the state
Nobles freed from taxes or state service
Serfdom became even more severe
Nobles had complete control over their serfs and could mete out arbitrary punishments (even death)
Only nobles could own land
Territorial growth under Catherine the Great
Annexed Polish territory under the 3 partitions with Prussia and Austria in 1772, 1793 & 1795
Poland’s government of nobles was ineffective as the liberum veto required unanimous agreement for the government to act.
Gained Ottoman land in the Crimea that was controlled by the Tartars.
Began conquest of the Caucasus region.
Expansion provided Catherine with new lands with which to give the nobility (to earn their loyalty)
Austria
Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780) (not an Enlightened despot)
Assumed the Habsburg empire from her father, Charles VII.
Pragmatic Sanction of 1713: Issued by Leopold and agreed to by the Great Powers that the
Habsburg Empire would remain intact under his daughter’s rule
Officially, she was Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia.
She sought to improve the condition of her people through absolute rule.
Conservative and cautious (unlike her son, Joseph II who was a bold reformer but brought the empire to near rebellion)
The War of Austrian Succession
As a female, Maria Theresa could not assume the title of Holy Roman Emperor
This issue cast doubts among the Great Powers regarding her legitimacy as ruler of the
Habsburg empire
Although Maria Theresa lost Silesia to Prussia, she saved her leadership of the empire.
The Hungarian nobility helped the queen to defeat the Bohemian revolt and preserve the empire.
Centralized control of the Habsburg Empire
Limited the power of the nobles
Reduced power of the lords over their serfs
Some serfs were partially freed
Feudal dues by peasants were reduced or eliminated
Nobles were taxed
Maria Theresa did more to help the condition of serfs than any ruler in European history up to that time (only her son, Joseph II, did more)
This was in response to the terrible famine and disease of the 1770s.
Increased the empire’s standing army from 30,000 to over 100,000
Improved the tax system
Reduced conflicts between various provinces in the empire
Reduced the practice of torture in legal proceedings
Brought the Catholic Church in Austria under state control
Sought to reduce pope’s influence in Austria
Suppressed the Jesuits
Taxed the Catholic Church in Austria
She believed that the Church and the nobility were the foundations of the state
Promoted economic development
Hoped that giving serfs some freedoms would make them more productive
Abolished guilds
Abolished internal customs duties and
Encouraged immigration
Improved transportation: roads, ports
Supported private enterprise
Maria Theresa is NOT considered, however, an Enlightened Despot
She was not a fan of the Enlightenment
Did not go as far as others in allowing religious toleration (which her son did, along with
Frederick the Great and Catherine the Great)
She did provide some toleration for Protestants
Joseph II (r. 1780-1790)
Ruled with his mother, Maria Theresa, as co-regent until her death in 1780
Perhaps the greatest of the “Enlightened Despots” in terms of reforms but in many ways was among the least effective
Deeply influenced by the Enlightenment and its emphasis on reforms
Firm believer in absolutism and he could be ruthless in achieving his goals
Major reforms
Abolished serfdom and feudal dues in 1781
Ironically, opposed by many peasants since the law stated that obligations to lords would have to be paid in cash, rather than labor (serfs had little cash available)
Nobles resisted their reduced power over the peasantry
This edict was rescinded after his death by his brother Leopold II who needed support of the nobles.
Freedom of religion and civic rights to Protestants and Jews
Reduced the influence of the Catholic Church
Suppressed monasteries
Allowed freedom of the press to a significant degree
Reformed the judicial system and sought to make it equal for all citizens
Abolished torture and ended the death penalty
Expanded state schools
Established hospitals, insane asylums, poorhouses and orphanages
State provided food and medicine to the poor
Made parks and gardens available to the public
Made German the official language of the empire in an effort to assimilate minorities
Empire declined under Joseph’s reign
Austria defeated several times in wars with the Ottoman Empire
Austrian Netherlands in revolt
Russia was threatening Austria’s interests in eastern Europe and the Balkans
Leopold II was forced to reverse many of Joseph’s radical reforms in order to maintain effective control of the empire.
18 th Century Economy and Society
The Agricultural Revolution (17th and 18th centuries)
The state of agriculture in 1700
Peasants and artisans had about the same standard of living as in the Middle Ages
Most people battled hunger and lacked sufficient clothing and decent housing
Agriculture had changed little since the Middle Ages
80% of western Europe’s population were farmers; percentage was even higher in eastern
Europe
The Netherlands was the only exception; more urban and mercantile
Agricultural output was very low compared to modern standards
Medieval open field system was predominant
Failed harvests occurred once or twice a decade, on average resulting in famines
People were malnourished, making them more susceptible to disease
Science was essentially a branch of theology and had no real application in agriculture
Open field system
Common lands were open and strips of land for agriculture were not divided by fences or hedges
Open fields were farmed as a community
Agriculture in villages changed little from generation to generation; based largely on community and family traditions
Exhaustion of soil was a common problem
Eventually, 1/3 to ½ of lands were allowed to lie fallow on any given year so that the soil could recover
Villages maintained open meadows for hay and natural pasture
Peasants were often taxed heavily
Serfs in eastern Europe were far worse off than farmers in western Europe
In the 18th century, England, the Netherlands and France became leaders for increased agriculture, industry and trade that resulted in population growth
Features of the Agricultural Revolution
Increased production of food
Increased crop and animal yields could feed more people
New methods of cultivation
Crops were grown on wastelands and uncultivated common lands
Selective breeding of livestock
Led to better cultivation as a result of healthier animals
Science and technology was applied to agriculture
The Low Countries led the way
Increased population meant that finding new methods of agricultural became paramount
Growth of towns and cities created major markets for food produced in the countryside
Regional specialization in the Netherlands resulted: certain areas for farming, certain regions for fishing and shipping; towns and cities for mercantile activities
By mid-17th century, the Dutch enclosed fields, rotated crops, employed heavy use of manure for fertilizer and planted a wide variety of crops
Free and capitalistic society provided profit incentives for farmers to be productive
Drainage
Much of Holland had once been marshland or covered by ocean waters
The Dutch became world leaders in reclaiming wetlands through drainage
Cornelius Vermuyden was the most famous of the Dutch engineers in drainage techniques
Drainage was later used extensively in southern England to create new farm lands
England
By 1870, crop yields had tripled since 1700 with only a 14% increase in people working the land
Charles Townsend pioneered crop rotation
As English ambassador to the Netherlands, he witnessed Dutch use of nitrogen-rich crops such as turnips and clover to replenish soil so that fallowing was not necessary
Townsend later drained much land back at home in England
Employed crop rotation: turnips, peas, beans, clover and potatoes
Some nicknamed him “Turnip” Townsend
Enriched soil provided more food for livestock
Manure was used for fertilizer
Increased food for livestock meant mass slaughter of animals was no longer needed prior to winter
Animal feed was now available to sustain livestock through the winter
People ate more fresh meat rather than preserving surplus meat through salting
By 1740, new agricultural techniques had become popular among much of the English aristocracy
Jethro Tull (1674-1741)
Good example of how the empiricism of the scientific revolution was applied to agriculture
His seed drill allowed for sowing of crops in a straight row rather than scattering it by hand.
Used horses for plowing rather than slower oxen
Robert Bakewell (1725-95) pioneered selective breeding of livestock
Larger and healthier animals were developed
Resulted in increased availability of meat, wool, leather, soap and candle tallow
More manure became available for fertilizing
New foods: the Columbian exchange resulted in a revolution in diet
New foods from the New World became increasingly available in the 17th and 18th centuries
Potatoes and corn were among the most important: highly nutritious and relatively easy to grow.
The Enclosure Movement in England
Began in the 16th century
Landowners sought to increase profits from wool production by enclosing fields for raising sheep
Differed from 18th century enclosure that was based largely on agriculture
Enclosure of fields intensified in the 18th century
End to the open field system
Landowners consolidated their scattered holdings into compact fields that were fenced
Common pasture lands were also enclosed
Resulted in the commercialization of agriculture
Large landowners prospered and invested in technology (machinery, breeding, cultivation methods)
Increased number of large and middle-sized farms
Parliament passed over 3,000 enclosure acts in the late-18th century and early 19th-century that benefited large landowners
Corn Laws in 1815 benefited landowners
High tariffs placed on foreign grain
Drove up the price of English grain in England
Hurt the poor as they couldn’t afford price increases for food
One of most notorious examples of a law that benefited the wealthy at the expense of the
English peasantry
Enclosure’s impact on the peasantry
Many were forced off lands that had once been common
Many moved to towns or cities looking for work since work was less available in the countryside
Many found work in factories or in poor houses
Many became impoverished farm laborers
In some cases, enclosure freed men to pursue other economic opportunities, such as the cottage industry
Women now had no way to raise animals on common lands for extra money
Impact on women
In traditional communities, women had been an indispensable part of a household’s economic survival
Women farmed, raised animals and oversaw important functions of the household
Enclosure of common lands meant that women (and men) were forced off the land
Economic opportunities for women thus decreased significantly
Many families with daughters were eager to get them out of the house as they were an extra mouth to feed
Young women increasingly went to towns or cities where they became domestic workers, or in many cases when there were no alternatives, prostitutes.
Families who were able to get by in the countryside often supplemented their income through the cottage industry, or putting-out system (mostly for spinning or weaving)
Women played an important role in spinning and weaving
A strict hierarchical system emerged
A few landowners (gentry)dominated the economy and politics
Strong and prosperous tenant farmers rented land from the large landowners
Some small peasant farmers owned their own land
A huge number of peasants became wage earners on farms or in the cottage industry
Struggles between landowners and peasants occurred
Game laws were passed on behalf of landowners whereby any animals on owners’ vast lands could not be hunted for food
Peasants who were without food would risk severe punishment if they were caught hunting for food on an owner’s land
Enclosure did not spread significantly to western Europe
France did not develop enclosure as national policy and after the 1760s peasants in the provinces strongly opposed enclosure
Eastern Europe did not see fundamental agricultural changes until the 19th century
Impact of the Agricultural Revolution
Led to Europe’s population explosion in the 18th century
The Enclosure movement altered society in the countryside
Common lands were enclosed thus changing traditional village life
Widespread migration to cities resulted in urbanization
Women were adversely affected
The cottage industry emerged as a means of supplementing a farm family’s income
Economically, the increased supply of food resulted in lower food prices that enabled people to spend more money on consumer goods.
Population Explosion
Limits on population growth prior to 1700
Famine, disease and warfare kept population growth in check
Not until the mid-16th century did Europe’s population reach pre-Black Death levels in the early 1300s.
Causes
Agricultural revolution made more food available to larger populations
New foods such as the potato became a staple crop for the poor in many countries (e.g. Ireland)
Improved food transportation due to better roads and canals
Better diet resulted in stronger immune systems in people to fight disease
Disappearance of the bubonic plague after 1720
Improved sanitation in towns and cities
18th century wars were less destructive on civilian populations
Advances in medicine were NOT a significant cause
Population growth had reached a plateau between 1650 and 1750 but began to grow dramatically after 1750.
Between 1700 and 1800 the European population increased from about 120 million to about
190 million people.
Proto-Industrialization: the Cottage Industry (“Putting-Out” System)
Rural industry became a major pillar of Europe’s growing economy in the 18th century
Rural population was eager to supplement its income
Merchant-capitalists in cities were eager to draw on cheap labor in the countryside rather than paying guild members in towns higher fees
Thus, early industrial production was “put out” into the countryside: the “putting-out system”
Manufacturing with hand tools in peasant cottages came to challenge the urban craft industry
Cottage industry
Merchant-capitalist would provide raw materials (e.g. raw wool) to a rural family who produced a finished or semi-finished product and sent it back to the merchant for payment
Cottage workers were usually paid by the number of pieces they produced
Merchants would sell the finished product for a profit
Wool cloth was the most important product
The Cottage industry was essentially a family enterprise.
Work of four or five spinners needed to keep one weaver steadily employed.
Husband and wife constantly tried to find more thread and more spinners.
“Spinsters” were widows and unmarried women who spun for their living.
Sometimes, families subcontracted work to others
Problems with the cottage industry
Constant disputes between cottagers and merchants occurred over weights of materials and quality of cloth.
Rural labor unorganized and usually difficult for merchants to control.
Merchant-capitalists’ search for more efficient methods of production became profound resulting in growth of factories and the industrial revolution.
Results
Thousands of poor rural families were able to supplement their incomes
Unregulated production in the countryside resulted in experimentation and the diversification of goods
Goods included textiles, knives, forks, housewares, buttons, gloves, clocks and musical instruments
The cottage industry flourished first in England
Spinning and weaving of woolen cloth was most important
In 1500, half of England’s textiles were produced in the countryside
By 1700, that percentage was higher
The putting-out system in England spread later to Continental countries (e.g. France and
Germany)
Proto-industrialism technology (prior to steam engine)
1733, John Kay invented the flying shuttle which enabled weaver to throw shuttle back and forth between threads with one hand.
1764, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny which mechanized the spinning wheel.
1769, Richard Arkwright invented the water frame, which improved thread spinning.
1780s, Arkwright used steam engine to power looms which required factory production of textiles.
Many historians consider this the beginning of the industrial revolution
1779, Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule which combined the best features of the spinning jenny and the water frame.
Mercantilism and the Atlantic Economy
European maritime expansion in the 18th century
World trade became fundamental to the European economy
Sugar became the most important commodity produced in the Atlantic trade; tobacco, cotton, and indigo were also important
The slave trade was enormous
Spain and Portugal revitalized their empires and grew economically from renewed development.
Netherlands, Great Britain, and France benefited the most.
By far, England had the largest number of emigrants to the New World at this time.
Characteristics of mercantilism
Main goal: economic self-sufficiency
A country or empire sought to create a favorable balance of trade by exporting more than it imported
Tariffs (customs duties) were placed on imports
Bullionism: countries sought to build up large reserves of gold and silver and prevent the flow of these precious metals out of their country
Colonies were acquired to provide raw materials (and markets) for the mother country
States granted monopolies to large companies (e.g. British East India Co., Dutch East India
Co.)
Encouraged development of domestic industries so that a country would not have to buy a finished product from a rival country
Great Britain
Became the world’s leading maritime power in the 18th century.
The Bank of England (1694) provided an important source of capital for economic development
The Act of Union (1707) unified England and Scotland; the Scots sought the benefits of trade within the English empire.
British mercantilism differed from France in that gov’t economic regulations often served the private interest of individuals and groups as well as public needs of the state.
In contrast, authoritarian states (like France) sought an economic system that primarily benefited the state rather than businessmen and workers.
For example, the intendant system was extended throughout the French empire
Navigation Acts were passed by Parliament to increase military power and private wealth.
First act passed in 1651 and sought to reduce Dutch domination of the Atlantic trade
Issued by Oliver Cromwell and extended by Charles II in 1660 and 1663
Required that most goods imported from Europe into Great Britain be carried on Britishowned ships with British crews or on ships of the country producing the specific good.
Gave British merchants and ship owners virtual monopoly on trade with the colonies.
Colonists required to ship their products (sugar, tobacco, cotton) on British ships and to buy almost all of their European goods from Britain.
The Triangular Trade
Revolved around the West Indies in the Caribbean and included North America and Africa.
One route: finished goods from Britain to the North American colonies where raw materials
(fish, rice, oil, timber) were then placed on ships and sent to Jamaica or Barbados, where these goods were traded for sugar that would be sent back to Britain for refining.
Another route: New England colonies shipped rum to Africa where slaves would then be placed on ships headed to the West Indies and traded for molasses which was then shipped northward to the American colonies.
Much of this trade, however, was illegal under the Navigation Laws but traders, both English and American, made fortunes nonetheless
The Dutch Republic
During the first half of the 17th century the Netherlands was the world’s dominant maritime power: “Golden Age of the Netherlands”
The middle class (burghers) dominated politics and the economy
The government remained decentralized and did not impede the economy.
A large degree of religious toleration enabled foreigners to live there without persecution
The three Anglo-Dutch Wars between 1652 and 1674 damaged Dutch shipping and commerce.
New Amsterdam seized by England in 1664; renamed “New York”
By the late 17th century, the Dutch were falling behind English in shipping, trade, and colonies.
However, the English and Dutch became allies to stop expansion of Louis XIV in late 17th century.
The wars of Louis XIV further weakened Dutch trade in the Atlantic
The Netherlands shifted their attention to banking rather than trade and managed to survive intact
First country to perfect the use of paper currency.
Stock market in Amsterdam was the most important in Europe
Created a central bank
The Slave Trade
The dramatic growth in the Atlantic trade was due in large part to the use of slave labor
About 10 million Africans were transported to the New World in the 17th and 18th centuries
Half of the slave trade occurred aboard British ships; 25% on French ships; and the rest on
Dutch, Portuguese, Danish and American ships
British and French governments gave chartered companies monopolies over the slave trade in the 17th and early 18th century.
Forts (“factories”) were set up on the West African coast to oversee and protect the slave trade
Independent slave traders broke the slave trade monopoly by the 1730s
Most slaves were actually captured by rival African tribes who traded slaves for European goods such as cloth, alcohol and weapons
Many slaves captured in the African interior died on forced marches to the West African coast.
Between 20% and 1/3 of slaves died en route to the New World while on slave ships (the
“Middle Passage”)
Most slaves were taken to Brazil or the West Indies, usually to work sugar plantations
As many as 400,000 ended up in British North America in colonies such as Virginia, Maryland and South Carolina.
The slave trade dwindled significantly by the 1780s
Most of the subsequent increase in the New World slave population came from natural population growth
The “Bubbles”
Both Britain and France faced massive national debts due to numerous wars fought in the 17th and early 18th centuries.
The South Sea Bubble, 1720
1719, the British government gave the South Sea Company rights to take over the national debt.
The company had been given a monopoly of the slave trade with Latin America a few years earlier.
The company would presumably make a profit from the interest collected from the gov’t on the debt
When investors didn’t make their money back fast enough the company converted the debt owed them into shares of stock.
A speculative frenzy drove stock prices higher as investors believed prices would continue upward
The bubble burst in 1720 resulting in the first large-scale financial crash
It took years to restore confidence in the British government’s ability to repay its debts
The Mississippi Bubble, 1720
The Mississippi Company was granted a monopoly by the French government on trade with
French Louisiana in North America
In 1719, the company took over France’s national debt in exchange for company shares of stock.
In 1720, after dramatic price increases in stock shares, the price of the stock collapsed and the
Mississippi Company was ruined.
The national debt in France remained staggering and played a role in the French Revolution 7 decades later
Colonial Wars (could be considered part of a “Second Hundred Years’ War”—1689-1815)
Background
Britain and France were the two main adversaries in the colonial wars for empire
Between 1701 and 1783 both countries engaged in a series of wars over the issue of maritime trade and colonial expansion
France had the largest army on land and was working to build up its naval forces
France sought to support Spain
The Netherlands and Spain were in relative decline
In effect, these wars were world wars since they involved fighting in Europe, the high seas and the New World.
War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
The prospect of the Bourbons (Louis XIV and his grandson) controlling both France and Spain
(and their empires) became a major threat to Britain in North America and the balance of power in Europe
Britain’s American colonies along the east coast would be surrounded by New France in the
North and Spanish territory in Florida and in the West.
Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
France lost Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and the Hudson Bay territory to Great Britain
Spain lost the asiento to Britain: the West African slave trade with the New World
Spain agreed to allow one British ship of merchandise per year through Panama.
This was Britain’s attempt to crack open the Spanish colonial market to British goods
War of Jenkins’ Ear (began in 1739)
Started over issue of Spain’s allegation of British abuse regarding the Treaty of Utrecht provision that allowed Britain to send one ship of merchandise to Central America per year.
Spanish officials boarded a British ship suspected of smuggling goods into Latin America and cut off ear of Captain Jenkins, a British officer.
Jenkins kept his ear in a jar of brandy and presented it to Parliament 7 years later
In response, King George II went to war with Spain.
Conflict expanded into the War of Austrian Succession in 1740.
War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
Involved battles between England and France in North America and India.
Spain fought effectively in keeping its empire intact
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) essentially preserved the status quo in the colonial empires
Seven Years’ War (French & Indian War: 1754-63)
Biggest world war of the 18th century
Began in the disputed Ohio Valley of North America when a young American officer, George
Washington, engaged a French force protecting Ft. Duquesne (modern-day Pittsburgh) in
1754.
French forces (and their Amerindian allies) fought British and American colonial forces for control of North America.
This war became part of the larger Seven Years’ War in Europe
William Pitt, Britain’s new prime minister, changed Britain’s war strategy in the middle of the war by focusing more attention on North America.
Britain’s Royal Navy defeated France’s navy in various engagements on the high seas
France planned to invade Great Britain but devastating naval losses ended such an attempt
British trade prospered as a result
France’s trade dropped to 1/16 of its prewar level
France’s sugar trade with its West Indian colonies was choked off
Britain took control of French posts near Calcutta and Madras in India
When Spain entered the war on France’s side, Britain seized Cuba and the Philippines from
Spain
Treaty of Paris (1763) – ended the 7 Years’ War
Most important European peace treaty since the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648
France was completely removed from North America
France lost Canada to Britain as well as all its colonial possessions east of the Mississippi
River.
As compensation for Spain’s support in the war, France gave the Louisiana territory
(including New Orleans) to Spain
France had to accept British domination in India, especially Bengal (although it was allowed to keep its posts there)
This later proved significant as India became Britain’s most important colonial possession in the 19th and early 20th centuries
Spain ceded Florida to Britain in return for Cuba and the Philippines
Britain thus became the world’s dominant colonial empire
The American Revolution (1775-1783)
In hopes of weakening Britain’s world empire, France gave significant financial and military support to the United States in its successful war for independence.
The 13 American colonies had been Britain’s most valuable colonial possessions as both a source for raw materials and a large market for British goods.
By 1775, about 2.5 million people lived in the colonies (over 1.6 million from England alone)
Colonial Latin America - Spain
In the 18th century, Spain’s colonies remained an important part of the Atlantic economy
Silver mining recovered in Mexico and Peru
Quadrupled between 1700 and 1800
Accounted for ½ the world’s supply of silver
The Spanish empire recovered under the reign of Philip V (Louis XIV’s grandson)
It’s navy became the 3rd most powerful in the world (behind Britain and France)
After the War of Spanish Succession Spain improved its control over the empire
Enlightened despotism of Charles III expanded economic and administrative reforms
Creoles—Spaniards born in Latin America—came to rival the power of Spanish authorities
Strove to recreate a European-style aristocracy in Latin America
Some were wealthy class merchants who benefited from smuggling activities
Indians were shifted from forced labor to debt peonage on owners’ lands
About 20% of the American population
Mestizos were children born to Spanish fathers and Indian mothers
Eventually represented about 30% of the population
Amerindian population constituted about 70%
Land owners believed Amerindians should do the hard labor in the countryside
Black slavery remained in the sugar plantations of Cuba and Puerto Rico
Portuguese Brazil
Sugar plantations in Brazil required massive numbers of slaves
By early 19th century, half of Brazil’s population was of African descent
The Portuguese, Indian and African populations in Brazil intermixed socially to a greater degree than in the Spanish empire, resulting in a multi-color population.
Life in the 18th Century
Marriage and the Family prior to 1750
The nuclear family was the most common in pre-industrial Europe.
Young married European couples established their homes apart from their parents.
3-generation households usually entailed a parent moving in with a married child.
On average, the age at marriage was higher prior to 1750, especially for the lower classes
Late 20s or older for both men and women
Couples could not marry until they could support themselves economically.
Peasant sons often had to wait until their father’s death to gain land (through inheritance).
Peasant daughters and family had to accumulate a small dowry to help her future husband to buy land or build a house.
Some areas required legal permission or approval of local lord or landowner for marriage.
Austria and Germany had legal restrictions on marriage well into 19th century.
Local governments believed that without regulating marriages, lower classes would create more paupers, abandoned children and more gov’t money would need to be expended on welfare.
This pattern helped maintain some balance between population and resources.
Many men and women never married.
Approximately 40% to 60% of women between 15 & 44 were unmarried at any given time.
Children
Rate of births out of wedlock was fairly low
Reflected powerful social controls of traditional villages, especially the open-field villages
Parents, village elders, priests, and landlords pressured young couples to marry if a pregnancy occurred.
Premarital sex was generally limited to couples who were already thinking about marriage.
Numbers of children per family
If wife & husband lived to age 45, odds about 50% of giving birth to 6 or more children.
Infant mortality was high.
20% in economically viable areas.
33% in poorer areas.
50% survival rate into adulthood was considered good.
New patterns of marriage & legitimacy emerged after 1750
The growth of the cottage industry with its increased income resulted in higher rates of people marrying for love instead of just purely economic reasons.
Young people did not have to wait as long to become financially independent.
Arranged marriages for economic reasons declined
Laws and regulations on marriage, especially in Germany, were often ignored.
Factory workers after 1780 followed marriage pattern of cottage workers.
The explosion of births was caused by increasing illegitimacy: 1750-1850.
Illegitimacy rates as high as 33% in certain areas.
Fewer girls abstaining from premarital sex and fewer boys married girls they impregnated.
Mobility encouraged new sexual and marital relationships which were less subject to parental pressure and village tradition.
In Germany, illegitimate births were a result of open rebellion against class laws limiting marriage among the poor.
Illegitimacy declined when marriage restrictions were rescinded.
Women in cities and factories had limited economic independence.
Young women were not motivated by visions of emancipation and sexual liberation.
Most city women probably looked to marriage and family life as an escape from hard lifestyle.
Many intended marriages did not take place as poor economic and social conditions scared men away from the commitment.
Attitudes toward children began to change during the 18th century
Child care and nursing
Poorer women generally breast-fed their infants for much longer periods than in the 20th century.
Resulted in spacing births of children from 2 to 3 years apart due to decreased fertility.
Infants more likely to survive on mother’s milk than on artificial foods.
Women of aristocracy and upper-middle class seldom breast-fed
This was also true of wives of artisans who lived comfortably
Believed it was crude, common and beneath their dignity.
Wet-nurses hired to breast-feed their children.
Many babies sent to countryside
Wet-nursing took two to three years.
“Killing nurses” were negligent, resulting in the death of many or most babies in their custody.
Infanticide
Early medieval church denounced infanticide; viewed each human life as sacred.
Yet, infanticide was rampant due to severe poverty.
“Overlaying” occurred in many cases with a parent rolling over and suffocating a child in bed.
Foundling hospitals emerged, first in Paris then throughout Europe
Many poor women left babies on the doorstep of churches.
By 1770, 1/3 of all babies born in Paris were immediately abandoned to the foundling home;
1/3 of those came from married couples.
Foundling home in St. Petersburg cared for 25,000 babies in the early 19th century; receiving
5,000 new babies a year.
Half of all babies died within a year; at worst, 90% died.
Some social critics claimed that foundling hospitals promoted “legalized infanticide.”
Child-rearing
Children were often treated indifferently and with strict physical discipline.
The use of wet-nurses is a good example.
Because of such high mortality rates, parents were reluctant to become too emotionally attached to their children.
Doctors often declined to care for sick children believing there was little that could be done.
“Spare the rod and spoil the child” –term coined by novelist Daniel Defoe
Many children worked in factories at a young age and were severely disciplined.
Many believed the task of parents was to break their will to make them obedient.
Humanitarianism and Enlightenment optimism regarding human progress emphasized better treatment of children.
Rousseau encouraged greater love and understanding toward children.
Increasingly, parents grew closer to their children.
Work Away from Home
Many young people worked within their families until they could start their own households.
Boys typically ploughed and wove (as part of the cottage industry).
Girls spun thread and tended to the animals.
Increasingly, many boys worked away from home
Boys in towns might be apprenticed to a craftsman for 7 or 14 years to learn a trade and perhaps be admitted to a guild.
Not allowed to marry during this period.
More often, young men would drift from one tough job to another
Large numbers of girls also worked away from home at an early age.
Opportunities more limited than for men.
Domestic service in another family’s household was most common job.
Most hoped to save money for their parents and for marriage.
Working away from home benefited parents who had one less mouth to feed.
Servant girls had little real independence
Girls were vulnerable to physical mistreatment by their mistresses.
Often became sexual victims
Upper classes commonly exploited servants sexually
If girl became pregnant she was quickly fired.
Prostitution and petty thievery often became only alternatives.
Education
The beginnings of formal education for the masses took root; largely inspired by
Protestantism.
Aristocracy and rich had a two-century head start beginning in the 16th century with special colleges, often run by Jesuits.
“Little schools” of elementary education began to appear in 17th century.
Boys and girls from age 7 to 12 were instructed in basic literacy and religion.
The Church of England and “dissenting groups” such as the Puritans founded “charity schools” to instruct poor children.
Scotland created a network of parish schools for all citizens to teach reading of the Scriptures.
France established Christian schools starting in 1682 which taught religion as well as reading and writing.
Starting in 1717, Prussia led the way with universal compulsory education.
Inspired by old Protestant idea that every Christian should be able to read the Bible
Education also seen as way to make the population effectively serve the state.
Enlightenment commitment to greater knowledge through critical thinking reinforced interest in education during 18th century.
Literacy by 1800:
Almost 90% of Scottish male population; only 1 in 6 in 1600.
2 out of 3 males in France; in Normandy, 90%; only 1 in 6 in 1600.
Over 50% of male Brits; only 25% in 1600.
Women were increasingly literate but lagged behind men in general.
Increased life expectancy
The life spans of Europeans increased from 25 to 35 years in the 18th century.
Largely the result of the disappearance of the plague and starvation.
More time spent by children on education and preparation for adulthood.
Development of public health techniques important breakthrough of 2nd half of 18th century.
Improved practices in sanitation.
Mass vaccinations
Better clothing (due to proto-industrialization)
Improvements in developing warm dry housing.
Adequate food (due to the agricultural revolution)
Diet and nutrition underwent significant changes during the 18th century.
The diet of ordinary people improved.
Poor people’s diets usually consisted of grains and vegetables.
The potato improved the diet of the poor with vitamins A and C.
Most Irish lived almost exclusively on the potato; lived in abject poverty
Average male ate 8 to 10 lbs a day!
The crop produced more food per acre
By end of 18th century, potato an important food in much of Europe.
Greater variety of vegetables existed in towns and cities
Upper classes consumed much meat and fish and alcohol.
Few fruits and vegetables eaten.
Greater affluence meant that some people indulged in less nutritious food (e.g. sugar).
Northern, Atlantic Europe ate better than southern, Mediterranean Europe.
The English ate the best of all.
Medical improvements
The bubonic plague had largely disappeared from Europe in the 17th century.
This was due to the increased resistance to the disease, the displacement of the Asian black rat, and better hygiene, improved public health and sanitation
The conquest of smallpox was the greatest medical triumph of the 18th century.
17th century: 25% of deaths in Great Britain caused by smallpox
Smallpox killed perhaps 60 million people in the 18th century; 400,000 per year on avg.
80% of Europeans contracted it; many were scarred for life
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced a Turkish technique of vaccination in the 18th century but it was roundly criticized.
Edward Jenner (1749-1823)
1778, created the foundation for the science of immunology with his vaccine for smallpox.
Discovered inoculating patients with cowpox would control onset of small pox.
Humanitarianism of late 18th century led to hospital reform.
Ventilation improved and filth eliminated as disease believed to be caused by bad air.
Spread of infection was reduced
First humane mental hospital founded in England in 1790
Religious reform continued in the 18th century.
Pietism and Methodism provided a challenge to established churches
“Pietism” in Germany caused its Protestant revival.
The emotional content of Christian faith was emphasized; enthusiasm in prayer, worship, preaching, and life itself, was the key concept.
Reasserted earlier radical stress on “priesthood of all believers.”
Reduced chasm between official clergy and Lutheran laity that had existed since the
Reformation.
Bible reading and study extended to all classes, thus spurring public education.
Pietists believed in practical power of Christian rebirth in everyday affairs.
Reborn Christians expected to lead good, moral lives and come from all sectors of society.
John Wesley (1703-1791) founded Methodism
Influenced by Pietism in Germany
Wesley concerned about complacency of religion in England (also the skepticism of the
Enlightenment and deism)
Wesley often preached in open fields to large numbers of people
Particularly popular among the lower classes
Rejected the Calvinist idea of predestination
He believed all men and women who earnestly sought salvation might be saved.
His message was one of hope and joy, of free will and universal salvation.
Methodism eventually developed into a new denomination.
The Arts in the eighteenth century
Visual Arts
Rococo (mid-eighteenth century France)
Identified with the court of Louis XV.
Lighter elements and more curves and natural patterns than the heavier baroque style
Highly decorative
More intimate settings; less grandiose than baroque
Many works focused on playful scenes of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie
Antoine Watteau (1684-1721): first great Rococo painter
Pilgrimage to Cythera, (1721)
Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732-1806): The Swing (1767)
Neoclassicism (late-18th, early 19th centuries)
Characteristics
Sought a return to the artistic style of ancient Rome, Greek ideals, and the Renaissance
Simplicity, balance, symmetry, restraint
Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) was the most important artist of the movement
Death of Socrates (1787) is seen as perhaps the first major work of the movement.
He painted numerous works glorifying the French Revolution
Neoclassical architecture became popular in many public buildings and private residences.
The arch de triomphe is such an example.
Washington, D.C. saw numerous buildings created in the “empire” style.
Music: Classical Style
The neo-classical ideas in the visual arts influenced music as well with the ideals of balance, symmetry and restraint.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791), Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809), and Ludwig van
Beethoven (1770-1826) became the masters of the new style
Moved away from the dense baroque textures of J. S. Bach and Handel
Simple, tuneful melodies and clearer forms
The symphony developed as an important genre
Essay Question – Unit 4
Trace and discuss the course of the Scientific Revolution. How did the religious and secular authorities react to this phenomenon?
