From Lau to Unz:
An Anatomy of the Policy Debate over Bilingual Education.
Kenji Hakuta
Stanford University
http://www.stanford.edu/~hakuta
National Association for Bilingual Education
Philadelphia
March 22, 2002
1974
1998
U. S. Supreme Court
Lau v. Nichols 1974
Basic English skills are at the very core of what these
public schools teach. Imposition of a requirement that,
before a child can effectively participate in the
educational program, he must already have acquired
those basic skills is to make a mockery of public
education. We know that those who do not understand
English are certain to find their classroom experiences
wholly incomprehensible and in no way meaningful.
Lau v. Nichols 1974
There is no equality of treatment merely by providing students with the same
facilities, textbooks, teachers and curriculum; for students who do not
understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education.
Lau v. Nichols 1974
There is no equality of treatment merely by providing students with the same
facilities, textbooks, teachers and curriculum; for students who do not
understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education.
No specific remedy is urged upon us. Teaching English to students of Chinese
ancestry who do not speak the language is one choice. Giving instructions to
this group in Chinese is another. There may be others. Petitioners ask only
that the Board of Education be directed to apply its expertise to the problem
and rectify the situation.
1975 Lau Remedies
Terrence Bell, the United States Commissioner of Education issued the
“Lau Remedies”. These remedies went beyond the Lau decision and
required that bilingual education be provided.
“Because an ESL program does not consider the affective or cognitive
development of students [in the elementary and intermediate grades],
an ESL program is not appropriate.”
Common Program Categories
•English as a second language (ESL)
•Structured immersion (or "sheltered instruction" in
secondary grades)
•Transitional bilingual education
•Maintenance bilingual education
•Two-way bilingual programs
EVALUATIONS
1978
AIR Study, "Evaluation of the Impact of ESEA Title VII Spanish/English Bilingual
Education Program” released in January.
1981
Circulation of Baker & De Kanter internal OPBE document "Effectiveness of Bilingual
Education: A Review of the Literature", September.
1983
"Longitudinal Study of Immersion and Dual Language Instructional Programs for
Language Minority Children"
1983
"National Longitudinal Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Services to Language
Minority, LEP Students”
1985
Willig meta-analysis
1987
Rossell & Ross review.
1998
Greene meta-analysis.
Reading Comprehension
Age Equivalent Score
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
Program
4
3
0
1
2
3
4
GRADE
5
6
Bilingual
English-Only
Castañeda v. Pickard, 1981
The U.S. 5th Circuit Court of Appeals ruling interpreted the Equal
Education Opportunities Act of 1974 statement of "appropriate action"
as requiring the meeting of three criteria:
(1) programs must be based on "sound educational theory";
(2) they must be "implemented effectively" with adequate resources and
personnel, and
(3) after a trial period, the program must be evaluated as effective in
overcoming language handicaps.
Castañeda Model
Theory
Implementation
modify
Learning
What is sound theory?
Reading Comprehension
Age Equivalent Score
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
Program
4
3
0
1
2
3
4
GRADE
5
6
Bilingual
English-Only
Effective Schools Attributes
Attributes of effective schools and classrooms have been
identified that refer to school factors extending beyond the
program types with respect to language:
a supportive school-wide climate, school leadership, a
customized learning environment, articulation and
coordination within and between schools, some use of
native language and culture in the instruction of languageminority students, a balanced curriculum that incorporates
both basic and higher-order skills, explicit skills instruction,
opportunities for student-directed activities, use of
instructional strategies that enhance understanding,
opportunities for practice, systematic student assessment,
staff development, and home and parent involvement.
What is sound theory?
Effective Schools Attributes
Reading Comprehension
Attributes of effective schools and
classrooms have been identified that refer
to school factors extending beyond the
program types with respect to language:
Age Equivalent Score
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
0
a supportive school-wide climate, school
leadership, a customized learning
Bilingual
English-Only environment, articulation and coordination
within and between schools, some use of
native language and culture in the
instruction of language-minority students,
a balanced curriculum that incorporates
both basic and higher-order skills, explicit
skills instruction, opportunities for
student-directed activities, use of
instructional strategies that enhance
understanding, opportunities for practice,
systematic student assessment, staff
development, and home and parent
involvement.
Program
1
2
3
4
GRADE
5
6
Language Proficiency
How Long Does It Take?
English oral proficiency, reading and writing development and redesignation probability
from LEP to FEP as a function of grade level. District A.
1.0
Mean Score, 1 = Criterion
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Measure
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
1
2
3 4
GRADE
5
6
7
Redesignation
Writing
Reading
Oral English
Cummins’ Common Underlying Proficiency
Relationship between Native Language (Spanish) and
Second Language (English) Proficiencies,
r = .51.
1
English Proficiency
150
100
50
0
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Spanish Proficiency
Performance differences between strong and weak L1 and L2 readers.
Assessments that showed difference between L1 and L2 readers as well
1.5
1.5
1
1
0.5
0
L1S
L1W
-0.5
L2S
L2W
BPST
spell_total
spell_feature
Raven
Average Z-score
Average Z-score
Assessments that showed difference between strong and weak
readers
0.5
0
L1S
L2S
-0.5
-1
-1
-1.5
-1.5
Group
L1W
Group
L2W
PPVT
voc_definition
voc_metacognition
read_accuracy
Lily Wong Fillmore and Catherine Snow
What Teachers Need to Know about Language
ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics
http://www.cal.org/ericcll/teachers/teachers.pdf
Summarize texts, using linguistic cues to
interpret and infer the writer’s intentions
and messages.
Summarize texts, using linguistic cues to
interpret and infer the writer’s intentions
and messages.
Analyze tests, assessing the writer’s
use of language for rhetorical and
aesthetic purposes and to express
perspective and mood.
Summarize texts, using linguistic cues to
interpret and infer the writer’s intentions
and messages.
Analyze tests, assessing the writer’s
use of language for rhetorical and
Extract meaning from texts
aesthetic purposes and to express
and relate it to other ideas
perspective and mood.
and information.
Summarize texts, using linguistic cues to
interpret and infer the writer’s intentions
and messages.
Analyze tests, assessing the writer’s
use of language for rhetorical and
Extract meaning from texts
aesthetic purposes and to express
and relate it to other ideas
perspective and mood.
and information.
Evaluate evidence and arguments presented in texts and critique
the logic of arguments made in them.
Summarize texts, using linguistic cues to
interpret and infer the writer’s intentions
and messages.
Analyze tests, assessing the writer’s
use of language for rhetorical and
Extract meaning from texts
aesthetic purposes and to express
and relate it to other ideas
perspective and mood.
and information.
Evaluate evidence and arguments presented in texts and critique
the logic of arguments made in them.
Recognize and analyze textual
conventions used in various genres
for special effect to trigger
background knowledge or for
perlocutionary effect.
Summarize texts, using linguistic cues to
interpret and infer the writer’s intentions
and messages.
Analyze tests, assessing the writer’s
use of language for rhetorical and
Extract meaning from texts
aesthetic purposes and to express
and relate it to other ideas
perspective and mood.
and information.
Evaluate evidence and arguments presented in texts and critique
the logic of arguments made in them.
Recognize and analyze textual
conventions used in various genres
for special effect to trigger
background knowledge or for
perlocutionary effect.
Compose and write an
extended, reasoned text that
is well developed and
supported with evidence and
details.
What is sound theory?
Effective Schools Attributes
Reading Comprehension
Attributes of effective schools and
classrooms have been identified that refer
to school factors extending beyond the
program types with respect to language:
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
a supportive school-wide climate, school
leadership, a customized learning
Bilingual
English-Only environment, articulation and coordination
within and between schools, some use of
native language and culture in the
instruction of language-minority students,
a balanced curriculum that incorporates
both basic and higher-order skills, explicit
skills instruction, opportunities for
student-directed activities, use of
instructional strategies that enhance
understanding, opportunities for practice,
Measure
systematic student assessment, staff
Redesignation
Writing
development, and home and parent
Reading
Oral English
involvement.
Program
4
3
0
1
2
3
4
GRADE
5
6
1.0
0.9
Mean Score, 1 = Criterion
Age Equivalent Score
12
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
1
2
3 4
GRADE
5
6
7
SES
English Proficiency Development (Redesignation to FEP)
California, 1998 Data
Criterion : FEP / ELS > 1.0
Language
K
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Hmong
Cambodian
La o
Spanish
Sam oan
Armenian
Tongan
Indonesian
Vietnam ese
Rumanian
Portuguese
Russian
Arabic
Korean
Persian
Ukrainian
Chinese
Punjabi
Japanese
Pilipino
Ilocano
Hindi
0.03
0.19
0.29
0.17
0.77
0.16
0.36
0.6
0.24
0.62
1.04
0.35
0.76
0.48
1.34
0.07
0.48
0.39
0.4
1.12
0.65
0.76
0.05
0.15
0.27
0.16
0.66
0.19
0.39
0.9
0.26
0.62
1.12
0.32
0.86
0.54
1.47
0.14
0.54
0.4
0.42
0.99
0.97
0.78
0.05
0.12
0.27
0.17
0.79
0.2
0.38
0.68
0.29
0.7
0.92
0.35
0.95
0.63
1.36
0.17
0.66
0.47
0.54
1.06
0.9
0.69
0.07
0.19
0.29
0.21
0.64
0.27
0.44
0.81
0.5
1.15
1.42
0.48
0.91
1.07
1.91
0.22
0.99
0.59
0.9
1.27
1.05
1.04
0.09
0.31
0.35
0.26
0.84
0.44
0.38
0.87
0.65
0.83
1.43
0.65
1.02
1.55
2.14
0.26
1.34
0.71
1.13
1.45
0.96
1.04
0.13
0.43
0.43
0.36
0.78
0.8
0.48
1.06
0.88
1.15
1.53
0.89
1.05
2.2
2.56
0.33
1.86
0.8
1.33
1.88
1.22
1.08
0.19
0.61
0.55
0.5
1.12
1.1
0.6
1.21
1.15
1.23
1.8
0.97
1.33
2.86
3.27
0.27
2.12
0.76
1.46
2.35
1.38
1.26
0.25
0.67
0.73
0.61
1
1.19
0.61
1.38
1.3
1.14
1.9
1
1.38
2.92
3.22
0.48
2.53
0.77
1.56
2.63
1.54
1.26
0.36
0.89
0.78
0.71
1.3
1.27
0.84
1.3
1.44
1.76
1.99
1.09
1.59
3.18
2.89
0.35
2.56
0.79
1.8
2.84
1.99
1.37
0.39
1.01
0.85
0.74
1.51
1.35
0.77
1.4
1.25
1.46
1.81
1.12
1.36
2.19
3.18
0.28
1.9
0.75
1.93
2.63
1.94
1.21
0.56
1.24
1.13
0.94
1.32
1.35
0.58
0.99
1.25
1.31
2.05
1.16
1.44
2.17
3.46
0.21
1.96
0.77
2.03
2.72
1.7
1.28
0.81
1.66
1.49
1.2
1.94
1.7
1.19
0.99
1.44
2.35
1.74
1.25
1.77
2.95
3.59
0.24
2.14
0.93
2.19
3.23
1.79
1.69
1.19
2.25
2.16
1.57
1.61
1.99
0.85
1.39
1.85
2.29
2.41
1.43
2.24
3.59
4.58
0.25
2.71
1.04
3.43
4.08
2.67
2.65
State totals
0.21 0.21 0.23 0.29 0.36 0.49 0.65 0.76 0.88 0.89
1.1
1.4 1.83
Total# ELS Total# FEP Mean income
(Household)
29,474
6,453
$19,477
17,637
10,610
$26,097
7,703
4,772
$36,055
1,181,553
479,102
$39,181
1,667
1,657
$41,213
12,726
9,945
$42,107
1,963
1,046
$42,475
1,021
1,027
$43,932
41,456
34,443
$44,291
1,309
1,512
$45,452
2,299
3,670
$46,547
8,143
6,395
$48,182
6,077
7,041
$49,004
15,761
26,256
$49,229
4,985
12,202
$52,079
1,942
462
$52,981
35,944
51,240
$53,056
7,762
5,101
$54,481
4,969
5,656
$55,966
19,041
37,977
$57,960
1,724
2,344
$58,012
4,101
4,757
$58,339
1,442,692
758,363
Household Income by Language Group
(Source: 1990 Census of Population and Housing)
1
Hmong
0.8
Cambodian
Lao
Spanish
Samoan
0.7
Armenian
Tongan
0.6
Indonesian
Vietnamese
0.5
Rumanian
Portuguese
Percentage
0.9
Russian
Arabic
Korean
Persian
0.4
0.3
Ukrainian
Chinese
Punjabi
Japanese
0.2
0.1
Pilipino
Ilocano
Hindi
0
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
Household Income
140000
160000
180000
200000
Norm-referenced English writing scores by parent
educational level, District B.
Broad Written Language
Written Expression
12
12
11
11
11
10
10
10
9
8
7
6
Age Equivalent Score
12
Age Equivalent Score
Age Equivalent Score
Basic Writing Skills
9
8
7
6
9
8
7
6
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
0
1
2
3
4
GRADE
5
6
3
0
1
2
3
4
GRADE
5
6
Parent Education
Beyond High School
High School or GED
Some High School
< High School
3
0
1
2
3
4
GRADE
5
6
What is sound theory?
Effective Schools Attributes
English Proficiency Development (Redesignation to FEP)
Reading Comprehension
Attributes of effective schools and
classrooms have been identified that refer
to school factors extending beyond the
program types with respect to language:
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
a supportive school-wide climate, school
leadership, a customized learning
Bilingual
English-Only environment, articulation and coordination
within and between schools, some use of
native language and culture in the
instruction of language-minority students,
a balanced curriculum that incorporates
both basic and higher-order skills, explicit
skills instruction, opportunities for
student-directed activities, use of
instructional strategies that enhance
understanding, opportunities for practice,
Measure
systematic student assessment, staff
Redesignation
Writing
development, and home and parent
Reading
Oral English
involvement.
Program
4
3
0
1
2
3
4
GRADE
5
6
1.0
0.9
Mean Score, 1 = Criterion
Age Equivalent Score
12
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
1
2
3 4
GRADE
5
6
7
California, 1998 Data
Criterion : FEP / ELS > 1.0
Language
K
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Hmong
Cambodian
La o
Spanish
Sam oan
Armenian
Tongan
Indonesian
Vietnam ese
Rumanian
Portuguese
Russian
Arabic
Korean
Persian
Ukrainian
Chinese
Punjabi
Japanese
Pilipino
Ilocano
Hindi
0.03
0.19
0.29
0.17
0.77
0.16
0.36
0.6
0.24
0.62
1.04
0.35
0.76
0.48
1.34
0.07
0.48
0.39
0.4
1.12
0.65
0.76
0.05
0.15
0.27
0.16
0.66
0.19
0.39
0.9
0.26
0.62
1.12
0.32
0.86
0.54
1.47
0.14
0.54
0.4
0.42
0.99
0.97
0.78
0.05
0.12
0.27
0.17
0.79
0.2
0.38
0.68
0.29
0.7
0.92
0.35
0.95
0.63
1.36
0.17
0.66
0.47
0.54
1.06
0.9
0.69
0.07
0.19
0.29
0.21
0.64
0.27
0.44
0.81
0.5
1.15
1.42
0.48
0.91
1.07
1.91
0.22
0.99
0.59
0.9
1.27
1.05
1.04
0.09
0.31
0.35
0.26
0.84
0.44
0.38
0.87
0.65
0.83
1.43
0.65
1.02
1.55
2.14
0.26
1.34
0.71
1.13
1.45
0.96
1.04
0.13
0.43
0.43
0.36
0.78
0.8
0.48
1.06
0.88
1.15
1.53
0.89
1.05
2.2
2.56
0.33
1.86
0.8
1.33
1.88
1.22
1.08
0.19
0.61
0.55
0.5
1.12
1.1
0.6
1.21
1.15
1.23
1.8
0.97
1.33
2.86
3.27
0.27
2.12
0.76
1.46
2.35
1.38
1.26
0.25
0.67
0.73
0.61
1
1.19
0.61
1.38
1.3
1.14
1.9
1
1.38
2.92
3.22
0.48
2.53
0.77
1.56
2.63
1.54
1.26
0.36
0.89
0.78
0.71
1.3
1.27
0.84
1.3
1.44
1.76
1.99
1.09
1.59
3.18
2.89
0.35
2.56
0.79
1.8
2.84
1.99
1.37
0.39
1.01
0.85
0.74
1.51
1.35
0.77
1.4
1.25
1.46
1.81
1.12
1.36
2.19
3.18
0.28
1.9
0.75
1.93
2.63
1.94
1.21
0.56
1.24
1.13
0.94
1.32
1.35
0.58
0.99
1.25
1.31
2.05
1.16
1.44
2.17
3.46
0.21
1.96
0.77
2.03
2.72
1.7
1.28
0.81
1.66
1.49
1.2
1.94
1.7
1.19
0.99
1.44
2.35
1.74
1.25
1.77
2.95
3.59
0.24
2.14
0.93
2.19
3.23
1.79
1.69
1.19
2.25
2.16
1.57
1.61
1.99
0.85
1.39
1.85
2.29
2.41
1.43
2.24
3.59
4.58
0.25
2.71
1.04
3.43
4.08
2.67
2.65
State totals
0.21 0.21 0.23 0.29 0.36 0.49 0.65 0.76 0.88 0.89
1.1
1.4 1.83
Total# ELS Total# FEP Mean income
(Household)
29,474
6,453
$19,477
17,637
10,610
$26,097
7,703
4,772
$36,055
1,181,553
479,102
$39,181
1,667
1,657
$41,213
12,726
9,945
$42,107
1,963
1,046
$42,475
1,021
1,027
$43,932
41,456
34,443
$44,291
1,309
1,512
$45,452
2,299
3,670
$46,547
8,143
6,395
$48,182
6,077
7,041
$49,004
15,761
26,256
$49,229
4,985
12,202
$52,079
1,942
462
$52,981
35,944
51,240
$53,056
7,762
5,101
$54,481
4,969
5,656
$55,966
19,041
37,977
$57,960
1,724
2,344
$58,012
4,101
4,757
$58,339
1,442,692
758,363
Elements of Standards-Based Reform
•clearly articulated, publicly accepted standards for
academic content, student performance, school capacity
•alignment of educational components around the standards
•assessment, accountability, and improvement system built
on standards
•important condition: fairness in testing (assessment in a
language and form most likely to yield valid and reliable
results)
Figure 11
What is sound theory?
Effective Schools Attributes
English Proficiency Development (Redesignation to FEP)
Reading Comprehension
Attributes of effective schools and
classrooms have been identified that refer
to school factors extending beyond the
program types with respect to language:
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
a supportive school-wide climate, school
leadership, a customized learning
Bilingual
English-Only environment, articulation and coordination
within and between schools, some use of
native language and culture in the
instruction of language-minority students,
a balanced curriculum that incorporates
both basic and higher-order skills, explicit
skills instruction, opportunities for
student-directed activities, use of
instructional strategies that enhance
understanding, opportunities for practice,
Measure
systematic student assessment, staff
Redesignation
Writing
development, and home and parent
Reading
Oral English
involvement.
Program
4
3
0
1
2
3
4
GRADE
5
6
1.0
0.9
Mean Score, 1 = Criterion
Age Equivalent Score
12
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
1
2
3 4
GRADE
5
6
7
California, 1998 Data
Criterion : FEP / ELS > 1.0
Language
K
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Hmong
Cambodian
La o
Spanish
Sam oan
Armenian
Tongan
Indonesian
Vietnam ese
Rumanian
Portuguese
Russian
Arabic
Korean
Persian
Ukrainian
Chinese
Punjabi
Japanese
Pilipino
Ilocano
Hindi
0.03
0.19
0.29
0.17
0.77
0.16
0.36
0.6
0.24
0.62
1.04
0.35
0.76
0.48
1.34
0.07
0.48
0.39
0.4
1.12
0.65
0.76
0.05
0.15
0.27
0.16
0.66
0.19
0.39
0.9
0.26
0.62
1.12
0.32
0.86
0.54
1.47
0.14
0.54
0.4
0.42
0.99
0.97
0.78
0.05
0.12
0.27
0.17
0.79
0.2
0.38
0.68
0.29
0.7
0.92
0.35
0.95
0.63
1.36
0.17
0.66
0.47
0.54
1.06
0.9
0.69
0.07
0.19
0.29
0.21
0.64
0.27
0.44
0.81
0.5
1.15
1.42
0.48
0.91
1.07
1.91
0.22
0.99
0.59
0.9
1.27
1.05
1.04
0.09
0.31
0.35
0.26
0.84
0.44
0.38
0.87
0.65
0.83
1.43
0.65
1.02
1.55
2.14
0.26
1.34
0.71
1.13
1.45
0.96
1.04
0.13
0.43
0.43
0.36
0.78
0.8
0.48
1.06
0.88
1.15
1.53
0.89
1.05
2.2
2.56
0.33
1.86
0.8
1.33
1.88
1.22
1.08
0.19
0.61
0.55
0.5
1.12
1.1
0.6
1.21
1.15
1.23
1.8
0.97
1.33
2.86
3.27
0.27
2.12
0.76
1.46
2.35
1.38
1.26
0.25
0.67
0.73
0.61
1
1.19
0.61
1.38
1.3
1.14
1.9
1
1.38
2.92
3.22
0.48
2.53
0.77
1.56
2.63
1.54
1.26
0.36
0.89
0.78
0.71
1.3
1.27
0.84
1.3
1.44
1.76
1.99
1.09
1.59
3.18
2.89
0.35
2.56
0.79
1.8
2.84
1.99
1.37
0.39
1.01
0.85
0.74
1.51
1.35
0.77
1.4
1.25
1.46
1.81
1.12
1.36
2.19
3.18
0.28
1.9
0.75
1.93
2.63
1.94
1.21
0.56
1.24
1.13
0.94
1.32
1.35
0.58
0.99
1.25
1.31
2.05
1.16
1.44
2.17
3.46
0.21
1.96
0.77
2.03
2.72
1.7
1.28
0.81
1.66
1.49
1.2
1.94
1.7
1.19
0.99
1.44
2.35
1.74
1.25
1.77
2.95
3.59
0.24
2.14
0.93
2.19
3.23
1.79
1.69
1.19
2.25
2.16
1.57
1.61
1.99
0.85
1.39
1.85
2.29
2.41
1.43
2.24
3.59
4.58
0.25
2.71
1.04
3.43
4.08
2.67
2.65
State totals
0.21 0.21 0.23 0.29 0.36 0.49 0.65 0.76 0.88 0.89
1.1
1.4 1.83
Total# ELS Total# FEP Mean income
(Household)
29,474
6,453
$19,477
17,637
10,610
$26,097
7,703
4,772
$36,055
1,181,553
479,102
$39,181
1,667
1,657
$41,213
12,726
9,945
$42,107
1,963
1,046
$42,475
1,021
1,027
$43,932
41,456
34,443
$44,291
1,309
1,512
$45,452
2,299
3,670
$46,547
8,143
6,395
$48,182
6,077
7,041
$49,004
15,761
26,256
$49,229
4,985
12,202
$52,079
1,942
462
$52,981
35,944
51,240
$53,056
7,762
5,101
$54,481
4,969
5,656
$55,966
19,041
37,977
$57,960
1,724
2,344
$58,012
4,101
4,757
$58,339
1,442,692
758,363
Figure 9
Proposition 227
All minority language children will be placed in English
language classrooms. Children who are limited English
proficient will be taught through sheltered English
immersion for a period not normally to exceed one year.
Rosalie Porter
Director, READ Institute
“-- learning subject matter content in a second language
can begin to occur in a matter of weeks, starting with the
subjects that can be partially understood through symbols
(mathematics), active experiments and demonstrations
(science), and progressing to the social science.”
English Learning Students
(2nd Grade, SAT9 2000 Reading)
SAT9 %
50
40
Schools providing
bilingual instruction
30
Schools using only
English immersion
20
Oceanside USD
10
0
1998
1999
Year
2000
English Learning Students
(3rd Grade, SAT9 2000 Reading)
SAT9 %
50
40
Schools providing
bilingual instruction
30
Schools using only
English immersion
20
Oceanside USD
10
0
1998
1999
Year
2000
Figure 1. SAT-9 reading scores for Oceanside and Statewide for 1998 thru 2000. Blue lines represent data for all students; red lines
represent data for English Learners (LEP).
Reading, Grade 2
Reading, Grade 3
75
50
All Students
25
English Learners
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year of Testing
Percentile Rank of Mean Score
Percentile Rank of Mean Score
75
50
All Students
25
English Learners
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year of Testing
Oceanside
Statewide
What are the components of
“sound educational theory”?
Carnine and Meeder Principles
• Random assignment of students and
teachers to conditions
• Representative and unbiased sample
• Minimum N=12 per condition
• Valid, reliable measures
• Confounding variables controlled
• Valid statistics
• Educationally significant
National Reading Panel Standards
• True or quasi-experiment;
• Study participants must be carefully described (age,
demographic, cognitive, academic, and behavioral
characteristics);
• Study interventions must be described in sufficient detail
to allow for replicability, including how long the
interventions lasted and how long the effects lasted;
• Study methods must allow judgments about how
instruction fidelity was insured; and
• Studies must include a full description of outcome
measures.
Research Reform Proposal
• A new, independent “Education Audit Agency”
• Dedicated to the canons of scientific inquiry and the
pursuit of truth, without fear or favor
• In its conduct of education research, the Education Audit
Agency should strive for scientific rigor, including, to the
maximum degree possible, randomized field trials.
William Bennett, Chester Finn, Tom Loveless, Diane Ravitch
Seven Principles for Reauthorizing OERI, NAEP and NAGB
May 4, 2000
A Definition of Research
…is evaluated using randomized experiments
in which individuals, entities, programs, or activities
are randomly assigned to different variations
(including a control condition) to compare the
relative effects of the variations.
Amendment offered by Mr. Schaffer to the Amendment
in the nature of a substitute offered by Mr. Goodling (ESEA)
Document dated April 5, 2000, courtesy of Gerald Sroufe, AERA
NERPPB Policy Statement
The power of science comes from a combination of strong
theory and data that bear on the theory. This implies
endorsement of explicit ideas and agreed-upon methods
for exploring and testing these ideas based on observation
that has internal and external consistency. Experiments, as
a classification of research, should not be scattershot or
universal. Rather, they should be justified by a cumulative
record of rigorous naturalistic observation and piloting.
This requires knowledge of context in addition to
adherence to scientific canons. While experiments in
education may not be used as frequently as they should as
a preferred means for investigation … “science” should not
be equated with “experiments.”
National Academy of Sciences
Scientific Research in Education
Lisa Towne andRichard Shavelson, Eds.
Methodology appropriate to the question being asked.
Benefits of Bilingualism
English
140
130
120
EPVT_STD
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0
1
2
3
GROUP
4
5
EPVT2_S
EPVT_STD
English
Born in Mexico
140
130
120
EPVT_STD
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0
1
2
3
GROUP
4
5
EPVT2_S
EPVT_STD
English
Born in Mexico
Born in US, parents immigrated as adult
140
130
120
EPVT_STD
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0
1
2
3
GROUP
4
5
EPVT2_S
EPVT_STD
English
Born in Mexico
Born in US, parents immigrated as adult
140
Born in US, parent
immigrated as child
130
120
EPVT_STD
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0
1
2
3
GROUP
4
5
EPVT2_S
EPVT_STD
English
Born in Mexico
Born in US, parents immigrated as adult
140
Born in US, parent
immigrated as child
130
120
EPVT_STD
110
100
Parent born in US
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0
1
2
3
GROUP
4
5
EPVT2_S
EPVT_STD
Spanish
140
130
Catastrophic language loss
120
SPVT_STD
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0
1
2
3
GROUP
4
5
SPVT2_S
SPVT_STD
Basic English skills are at the very core of what these public
schools teach. Imposition of a requirement that, before a child can
effectively participate in the educational program, he must already
have acquired those basic skills is to make a mockery of public
education. We know that those who do not understand English are
certain to find their classroom experiences wholly
incomprehensible and in no way meaningful.
U. S. Supreme Court
Lau v. Nichols 1974
Overall Assessment of the Period
•Justice
•Fairness
•Benefits