Chapter 15
Stress & Health
Types of Stressors
A. Psychological Conflict
1. Approach-approach – choosing between one of two attractive goals.
2. Avoidance-avoidance – choosing between two unattractive options.
3. Approach-avoidance – choosing a goal that has both attractive and unattractive
features.
4. Double approach-avoidance – choosing between two alternatives that have both
positive and negative features.
B. Everyday hassles – minor everyday occurrences that can be distressing, frustrating and
irritating.
C. Life changes – personal changes in a person’s life that require adaptation/adjustment
D. Catastrophes – unpredictable, large-scale events, such as natural disasters or devastations
E. Poverty and inequality – low economic status
F.
Discrimination – prejudice and perceived unfairness
G. Adjustment to a new culture – when immigrants are
adjusting to life in a new culture
The Game of Life
Select a given number of items from the following lists of stressors, with the intention of maximizing your health
and resiliency. Once you have made your selections, explain why you chose the items you did and what impact
you would expect them to have on your health and happiness. Compare your answers with those of your
classmates and discuss the differences in personality, event appraisal, and personal habits that led to your
decisions.
Category I (Choose 1)
• Living in a country experiencing war
• Living through a major earthquake
• Losing your home and possessions because of a fire
• Living near a nuclear disaster site
• Having a close relative die in an accident
Category II (Choose 3)
• Death of a close relative
• Getting married
• Losing a job
• Having triplets
• Living 2,000 miles from family
• Moving to a new city
• Developing a serious illness
• Buying an expensive house
• Getting a promotion at work
• Having a 2-hour heavy-traffic commute every day
• Getting divorced
Category III (Choose 5)
• Getting stuck in construction traffic & being 3
hours late getting home
• Waiting in line at the post office for 1 hour to mail
your taxes
• Having two exams the day before your sister’s
wedding
• Locking your keys in the car
• Forgetting your notes for a presentation
• Getting a speeding ticket
• Losing your keys on the morning of a big job
interview
• Having a fight with your roommate
• Bouncing a check
• Having to find a new apartment
CHAPTER 15 SECTION 1
Sources of Stress
Stress – an anxious or threatening feeling resulting from our appraisal of a situation
& our reaction to demands placed upon us.
Components of Stress
I. Stressor – a stress-producing event or situation.
A. what is a stressor for one person may not be for another.
II. Stress reaction – the body’s observable response to a stressor whether
perceptual, cognitive, physical or emotional
III. There are different types of stress
A. Distress – negative stress that stems from acute anxiety or pressure &
can take a harsh toll on the mind and body.
B. Eustress – positive stress which results from the strivings and
challenges that are the spice of life.
IV. Stress is a normal, even essential, part of life that goes hand in hand with
working toward any goal or facing any challenge. It can spur us on to
greater effectiveness & achievement in some situations. We cannot escape
stress, however, we can learn to cope with stress so that it makes our lives
interesting without overwhelming us.
Conflict Situations
We often have to evaluate situations & then make difficult decisions between two or
more options which fall into four broad categories
1. Approach – Approach – choosing between two attractive options.
A. High school senior having to decide between two colleges.
B. Does not produce a great deal of stress because both choices are
satisfying.
2. Avoidance – Avoidance – choosing between two disagreeable options
A. College graduate unable to find a job but is offered a job with no future &
low pay. Do they accept it or continue looking for something better?
B. Either will be frustrating & there is usually a high level of indecision and
stress.
3. Approach – Avoidance – choosing to do something that has both enjoyable
and disagreeable consequences.
A. Wanting to ask for a raise but being afraid to be fired.
B. The degree of stress depends on the intensity of the desire or of the
perceived threat.
4. Double Approach – Avoidance – choosing between two or more alternatives,
each with attractive & unattractive aspects.
A. Taking vacation in Paris which would be expensive or Florida which
would be cheaper but less exciting.
B. The degree of stress generated depends on the intensity of the
attractions & repulsions.
Appraising a Situation
The level of stress you feel depends on how you appraise the situation.
1. Primary appraisal – our immediate evaluation of a situation.
A. Three ways you can appraise a situation – irrelevant, positive &
negative
2. Secondary appraisal – involves how to deal with a potentially stressful
situation, deciding on a coping strategy.
Environmental Stressors
Environmental conditions such as noise may cause stress on the job & these factors
can have similar effects on the public at large.
People exposed to excessive noise at work have reported more headaches, nausea
& moodiness than others.
Crowding is an environmental stressor as well. Studies have shown a relationship
between high-rise apartments with many people & aggression.
Life Changes & Stress
Major life changes are important sources of stress. Common to these events is the
separation of an individual from familiar friends, relatives or colleagues.
A scale was developed to measure the effects of 43 common events. Each event was
rated on a scale of 1 to 100 on how much adjustment the event required.
Cons: Scale was created in 1967 & was based on the stress in men’s lives and fails
to measure stress caused by ongoing situations such as racism and poverty.
Life event
Life change units
Death of a spouse
100
Divorce
73
Marital separation
65
Imprisonment
63
Outstanding personal achievement
28
Spouse starts or stops work
26
Begin or end school
26
Change in living conditions
25
Revision of personal habits
24
Trouble with boss
23
Change in working hours or conditions
20
Change in residence
20
Change in schools
20
Change in recreation
19
Change in church activities
19
Change in social activities
18
Minor mortgage or loan
17
Change in sleeping habits
16
Change in number of family reunions
15
Social
Readjustment
Rating Scale
Death of a close family member 63
Personal injury or illness
53
Marriage
50
Dismissal from work
47
Marital reconciliation
45
Retirement
45
Change in health of
family member
44
Pregnancy
40
Sexual difficulties
39
Gain a new family member
39
Business readjustment
39
Change in financial state
38
Death of a close friend
37
Change to different line of work 36
Change in frequency of
Change in eating habits
Arguments
35
Major mortgage
32
Foreclosure of mortgage or
Loan
30
15
Vacation
13
Christmas
12
Minor violation of law
11
Change in responsibilities at
Work
29
Child leaving home
29
Trouble with in-laws
29
Score of 300+: At risk of illness.
Score of 150-299+: Risk of illness is moderate (reduced by
30% from the above risk).
Score 150-: Only have a slight risk of illness.
Life Event
Life Change Units
Getting married
95
Unwed pregnancy
100
Death of parent
100
Acquiring a visible deformity
80
Divorce of parents
90
Fathering an unwed pregnancy 70
Jail sentence of parent for over
one year
69
Death of a brother or sister
68
Change in acceptance by
Pregnancy of unwed sister
Beginning to date
51
Suspension from school
50
Becoming involved with drugs or alcohol
50
Birth of a brother or sister
50
Increase in arguments between parents
47
Loss of job by parent
46
Outstanding personal achievement
46
Change in parent's financial status
45
Accepted at college of choice
43
Being a senior in high school
42
Hospitalization of a sibling
41
Increased absence of parent from home
38
Brother or sister leaving home
37
Addition of third adult to family
34
Becoming a full fledged member of a church
31
Decrease in arguments between parents
27
Decrease in arguments with parents
26
Mother or father beginning work
26
67
64
Discovery of being an
adopted child
53
70
Marital separation of parents
peers
Breaking up with boyfriend or girlfriend
63
Marriage of parent to
stepparent
Death of a close friend
63
63
Having a visible congenital
deformity
62
Serious illness requiring
hospitalization
Failure of a grade in school
58
56
Not making an extracurricular
activity
Hospitalization of a parent
55
55
Jail sentence of parent for
over 30 days
53
Score of 300+: At risk of illness.
Score of 150-299+: Risk of illness is moderate. (reduced by || 30% from
the above risk)
Score 150-: Slight risk of illness.
Hassles
In addition to major stressful events, psychologists have also studied the effects that
relatively minor, day-to-day stressors have on heath.
• household duties
• concerns about health
• time pressures
• environmental hassles
• financial hassles
• worries about your job
• concerns about your future
• inner hassles (low self-esteem or loneliness)
Research has found a connection between hassles & health problems. Hassles can
weaken the body’s defense system, making it harder to fight off potential health
problems.
It has also been suggested that small, positive events called uplifts can reduce
stress & protect a person’s health.
CHAPTER 15 SECTION 2
Reactions to Stress
There are a wide variety of stress reactions and their effects range from beneficial to
harmful.
Fight-or-Flight Response
Regardless of the stressor, the body reacts with immediate arousal. The adrenal
glands are stimulated to produce:
1. Hormones that increase the amount of blood sugar for extra energy.
2. Adrenaline, which causes rapid heartbeat and breathing and enables the
body to use energy more quickly
This response is needed for survival. It prepares you to face potentially dangerous
situations.
General Adaptation Syndrome
Hans Selye identified three stages in the body’s stress reaction
1. Alarm – the mobilizes its fight-or-flight defenses; heartbeat & breathing
quicken, muscles tense, the pupils dilate & hormones that sustain these
reactions are secreted. The person becomes exceptionally alert &
sensitive to stimuli in the environment & tries to keep a firm grip on their
emotions.
2. Resistance – the person often finds a means to cope with the stressor & to
ward off, superficially at least, adverse reactions. Person may suffer
psychosomatic symptoms which result from the stress.
3. Exhaustion – adrenal & other glands are at their limit, unable to secrete
hormones & the person becomes exhausted, disoriented & may delusions
in an effort to retain some type of coping strategy.
Emotional & Cognitive Responses
Short-Term psychological stress reactions may be either emotional or cognitive
1. Emotional
a. Anxiety – a feeling of an imminent but unclear threat. The most
common response.
b. Anger – most likely to result from a frustration.
c. Fear – usually the reaction when a stressor involved real danger.
Fear directs people to withdraw or flee but in severe cases they may
panic and be unable to act.
2. Cognitive
a. Difficulty in concentrating or thinking clearly
b. Recurring thoughts
c. Poor decision making
d. Unjustified suspicion or distrust of others
Behavioral Responses
There are many short-term behavioral changes that result from stress.
1. Person may develop nervous habits, gulp meals, smoke or drink more,
take drugs or feel tired for no reason, temporarily lost interest in eating,
grooming, bathing, etc and become more aggressive
2. Escape is another behavioral stress reaction & it is often the best way to
deal with frustration.
3. Some behavioral reactions are positive because some people will risk their
lives to save or help others in crisis situations.
Physical Responses
Our thoughts & emotions can produce physiological changes in our bodies
1. Some people develop psychosomatic symptoms as a result of stress such
as headaches, stomachaches & muscle pains.
2. Prolonged physical arousal can cause health problems, including difficulty
in breathing, insomnia, migraine headaches, urinary & bowel irregularities,
muscle aches, sweating & dryness of mouth
3. Stress is clearly related to illnesses and can be either the direct cause of
illness, such as a migraine or indirectly by suppressing our immune system
& making us more vulnerable to diseases & infections.
Factors Influencing Reactions to Stress
People’s reactions to stress vary considerably based on:
1. Personality Differences
a. Type A verses Type B
b. Emotional expressiveness
i.
2.
People who neither express nor admit to strong feelings of
despair, depression and anger are more likely to develop
cancer than those who can give vent to their emotions.
Perceived Control Over Stressors
a.
People prefer to have predictable stress over unpredictable stress in
which they have no control over. Our physical & psychological wellbeing is profoundly influenced by the degree to which we feel a
sense of control over our lives.
3.
Social Support
a.
Social support can help people decrease the effects of stressful
situations by providing a buffer from the effects of stress.
b.
Social groups offer at least four kinds of support.
i.
Emotional support involves concerned listening, which forms a
basis for offering affection & concern & bolstering the stressed
person’s self-confidence.
ii.
Appraisal support allows the stressed person to get feedback
about the stress & help in sorting out, understanding & dealing
with the situation at hand.
iii.
Informational support emerges from appraisal support where the
stressed person responds to what they have learned & evaluates
the manner in which they are dealing with stressors.
iv. Instrumental support represents active, positive support in the
form of direct help such as money or a place to live
CHAPTER 15 SECTION 3
Coping with Stress
Coping with stress is an attempt to gain control over a part of one’s life. There is not
just one way that is best for all people in all situations. Coping strategies may not
always be healthy ways to adapt. These are known as maladaptive ways of coping.
Psychological Coping Strategies
1. Defensive Coping Strategies
a. We try to influence our cognitive appraisals by means of defensive
coping strategies and stress reactions are more likely to occur when
these strategies fail.
i.
Denial – person decides that the event is not really a stressor
ii.
Intellectualization – person watches & analyzes the situation
from an emotionally detached standpoint.
Active Coping Strategies
1. Hardiness – refers to the personality traits of control, commitment & challenge that
help us reduce the stress we feel.
a. Control – feeling that we have the ability to affect the outcome of the
situation.
b. Commitment – establishing & pursuing our goals
c. Challenge – actively confronting & solving problems instead of feeling
threatened & powerless because of them.
2. Controlling stressful situations – controlling our exposure to stressful events &
thereby reducing levels of stress.
3. Problem solving – regarding frustrations or conflicts as problems to be solved
means the situation becomes a positive challenge rather than a negative setback.
4. Explanatory style – two very different styles of thinking.
a. Optimist typically puts the best face on any set of events.
b. Pessimist always sees the dark side.
5. Relaxation – techniques of relaxation have been developed especially to cope
with stress.
a. Progressive relaxation involves lying down comfortably & tensing and
releasing the tension in each major muscle group in turn.
b. Meditation involves focusing of attention with the goal of clearing one’s mind
and producing an “inner peace”
6. Humor – Laughing actually releases the tension of pent-up feelings and can help
you keep a proper perspective of the situation.
7. Exercise – Physical exercise is another constructive way to reduce stress and
helps to burn off stress hormones.
8. Support groups & professional help – help people with specific stress-related
problems.
9. Training – new, unfamiliar or dangerous situations can be stressful because we
are unsure we can deal with it. Training to prepare for such a situation can ease
the stress.
10. Improving interpersonal skills – developing skills in dealing with other such as
family, friends and coworkers is one of the best ways to manage stress. Being
able to interact well with others increases your self-confidence and self-esteem.
CHAPTER 15 SECTION 4
Stress in Your Life
Growing up involves gaining a sense of autonomy and independence. Each person
learns to make decisions, develop a value system, be responsible and to care for
themselves and means separating from the family, both physically & emotionally
Choosing College
College is one of the first big steps toward separation. As college students,
individuals are freer than they ever have been or may eve be again.
This can be exciting but will also acquire adjustment.
1. Many students approach college with high & often unrealistic aspirations
and many will use their experiences in the first semesters of college to
change their minds & images of themselves.
2. College also challenges the identity a student has established in high school
a. Ex. Star pupil in high school at a competitive college struggles to get
average grades where every student is bright & competitive.
3. Individuals are likely to encounter greater diversity
in college than they ever have before and may have
to reexamine their basic assumptions & perhaps
adopt new ideas & beliefs
(developmental friendships)
Coping with Change
1. Some focus their efforts to succeed in the field they have chosen even
though they may have doubts which can lead them leaving college with a
degree they don’t want.
2. Others avoid confronting doubt by frittering away their time, going through
the motions of attending college but detaching themselves emotionally.
3. Some manage to keep their options open until they have enough
information & experience to make a choice – resynthesis – combining old
ideas with new ones & reorganizing feelings in order to renew one’s
identity.
Working
Graduating from college or high school involves thinking about & finding your first
job & your career. What a person sees at work can differ but whatever is
chosen can bring satisfaction and/or dissatisfaction.
Research has identified five major sources of work satisfaction.
1. Resources – Does the worker have what they need to get the job done?
2. Financial Reward – Pays well, good benefits & is secure.
3. Challenge – Job is interesting & allows the worker to use their talents.
4. Relations with coworkers – Worker is on good terms with colleagues
5. Comfort – working conditions & related factors are attractive.