Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Coping Processes
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
The Concept of Coping
•
•
Coping refers to “efforts to master, reduce,
or tolerate the demands created by stress”.
General points for consideration:
1. There are many different ways of coping.
2. Individuals have unique styles of coping.
3. Coping strategies vary in their
effectiveness.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Common Coping Patterns of Limited Value
1. Giving up.
– People often develop learned
helplessness if they frequently encounter
aversive events they cannot control, and
they give up.
– Sometimes, however, this tendency is
transferred to situations in which the
person is not really helpless.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Common Coping Patterns of Limited Value (cont.)
1. Giving up. (cont.)
– Cognitive interpretation of aversive
events may determine whether we feel
helpless or not.
•
People with a “pessimistic
explanatory style” view aversive
events as “out of their control”, feel
helpless, and give up.
•
This coping strategy is called
“behavioral disengagement” and is
associated with increased distress.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Common Coping Patterns of Limited Value (cont.)
2. Striking out at others.
– Frustration caused by stressful events
may elicit aggression, “behavior intended
to hurt someone, either physically or
verbally”.
– People often act out toward others who
had nothing to do with their frustration.
– Using a substitute target in this manner
was called “displacement” by Freud.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Common Coping Patterns of Limited Value (cont.)
2. Striking out at others. (cont.)
– Freud believed aggressive acts could
release pent-up emotional tension and
called the process catharsis.
– However, research finds that acting
aggressively produces more, not less
anger and aggression.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Common Coping Patterns of Limited Value (cont.)
3. Indulging yourself.
– When stressed by events that are going
poorly, some people seek out alternative
sources of satisfaction by indulging in:
• Excessive eating, drinking and smoking;
• gambling & drug use; and
• Internet addiction – spending excessive
time online to avoid the real world.
– These behaviors are usually not healthy and
create more problems in the long-run.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Common Coping Patterns of Limited Value (cont.)
4. Blaming yourself.
– People often become highly critical of
themselves when stressed.
– Albert Ellis called this “catastrophic
thinking” which involves:
• Attributing failures to personal
shortcomings;
• Focusing on negative feedback; and
• Being overly pessimistic about the future.
• This pattern perpetuates negative emotional
reactions to stress.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Common Coping Patterns of Limited Value (cont.)
5. Using defensive coping.
– Defense mechanisms are “largely
unconscious reactions that protect a
person from unpleasant emotions such as
anxiety and guilt”.
– Defense mechanisms shield us from
emotional discomfort caused by stress.
– However, most involve a degree of selfdeception, a distortion of reality.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Common Coping Patterns of Limited Value (cont.)
5. Using defensive coping. (cont.)
– Defense mechanisms are considered
normal, and can operate at various levels
of consciousness.
– Are they healthy?
•
Generally, they are not, because:
– They are avoidance strategies;
– They often involve “wishful thinking”;
and
– Some have been linked to poor
health.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Common Coping Patterns of Limited Value (cont.)
– Are they healthy? (cont.)
•
Sometimes, however, they are useful
for severe stress because they buffer
us from extremely negative emotions.
– (e.g., unrealistic optimism may
benefit a terminally ill patient.)
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
The Nature of Constructive Coping
•
•
Constructive coping - “refers to efforts to
deal with stressful events that are judged to
be relatively healthful”.
Constructive coping involves:
1. Confronting problems directly.
2. Realistic appraisals of stress and coping
resources.
3. Learning to recognize and manage
disruptive emotional reactions to stress.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
The Nature of Constructive Coping (cont.)
•
Constructive coping involves: (cont.)
4. Learning to exert some control over
potentially harmful or destructive habitual
behaviors.
•
There are three main categories of
constructive coping strategies (see
Figure 4.4):
1. Appraisal-Focused
2. Problem-Focused
3. Emotion-Focused
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Figure 4.4
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Appraisal-Focused Coping
•
In Ellis’ A-B-C model (see Figure 4.5) he
explains how our appraisal (or beliefs about
stressful events) is critical to the coping
process.
– Negative appraisals (or beliefs) are often
associated with catastrophic thinking,
which exaggerates the magnitude of our
problems, whereas
– Positive (realistic and/or optimistic)
appraisals allow constructive coping.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Figure 4.5
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Appraisal-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
The roots of catastrophic thinking.
– Unrealistic, negative appraisals stem from
irrational assumptions we hold, such as:
1. “I must have love and affection from
certain people.”
2. “I must perform well in all endeavors.”
3. “Other people should always behave
competently and be considerate of me.”
4. “Events should always go the way I
like.”
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Appraisal-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Catastrophic thinking can be reduced by:
– Learning to detect it when it occurs.
– Learning to dispute irrational assumptions.
– Defusing stressful situations with humor.
– Reinterpreting stressful situations in a
more positive light.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Problem-Focused Coping
•
•
Problem-focused coping involves techniques
aimed at solving the problems that are
causing stress.
Four techniques are especially helpful:
1. Using “Systematic Problem Solving”.
2. Seeking help.
3. Effective time-management.
4. Improving self-control.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Problem-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
“Systematic Problem Solving” is a step-bystep technique for tackling problems.
1. Clarify the problem – often people do not
know what, exactly, is causing stress.
2. Generate alternative courses of action –
use “brainstorming” to generate ideas.
3. Evaluate your alternatives and select a
course of action.
4. Take action while maintaining flexibility.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Problem-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
•
Seeking help.
– It is often helpful to seek aid from friends,
family, co-workers and neighbors.
Using time more effectively.
– A common source of stress is “time
pressure” – a feeling of not having
enough time to accomplish tasks.
– Often, this can be improved by using the
time we have more effectively.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Problem-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Using time more effectively. (cont.)
– The causes of wasted time:
1. Inability to set or stick to priorities.
2. Inability to say “no” to others’ demands
on our time.
3. Inability to delegate responsibility.
4. Inability to throw things away.
5. Inability to accept anything less than
perfection.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Problem-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Using time more effectively. (cont.)
– The problem of procrastination:
•
About 20% of adults are chronic
procrastinators (Ferrari, 2001).
•
Many claim to benefit from this tactic
(e.g., saying they “work well under
pressure”).
•
However, procrastinators also tend to
experience more anxiety and health
problems.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Problem-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Using time more effectively. (cont.)
– Time management techniques:
1. Monitor your use of time – keep a
record to see where it all goes.
2. Clarify your goals – decide what you
want to accomplish with your time.
3. Plan your activities using a schedule –
planning saves time in the long-run.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Problem-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Using time more effectively. (cont.)
4. Protect your prime time – announce to
others when you’re blocking off certain
times to work so you won’t be
interrupted.
5. Increase your efficiency. Try these tips:
– Handle paper once.
– Tackle one task at a time.
– Group similar tasks together.
– Make use of your “downtime”.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Problem-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Improving self-control.
– “Behavior Modification”, an application
of operant conditioning, is a technique
designed to increase wanted behaviors,
and decrease unwanted behaviors.
– See the Application at the end of this
chapter for more details.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Emotion-Focused Coping
•
Enhancing emotional intelligence.
– Emotional intelligence – “consists of the
ability to perceive and express emotion,
assimilate emotion in thought, understand
and reason with emotion, and regulate
emotion”.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Emotion-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Emotional intelligence has four components:
1. Accurately perceiving emotions in yourself
and others.
2. Knowing how your emotions shape your
thinking.
3. An understanding of complex, or
contradictory emotions.
4. Regulation of emotions, especially
negative ones.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Emotion-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Releasing pent-up emotions.
– Efforts to actively suppress emotions,
especially anger, tend to increase stress
and physiological arousal.
– In contrast, “emotional disclosure” is
associated with better mood, more
positive self-perceptions, and better
health.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Emotion-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Managing hostility and forgiving others.
– When we feel “wronged”, our natural
tendency is to seek revenge or hold a
grudge.
– Forgiving others goes counter to these
instincts, but is associated with better
adjustment and well-being.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Emotion-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Meditating.
– Meditation – is “a family of mental
exercises in which a conscious attempt is
made to focus attention in a nonanalytical
way”.
• Benefits include
– Decreases in heart rate, respiration
rate, oxygen consumption and
carbon dioxide elimination (see
Figure 4.13), that indicate a state of
deep relaxation.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Figure 4.13
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Emotion-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Benefits include (cont.)
– Increased activity in the prefrontal
cortex, which indicates a focusing of
attention.
– Lower levels of stress hormones.
– Lower anxiety.
– Better mood.
– A sense of control.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Emotion-Focused Coping (cont.)
•
Using relaxation procedures.
– One well-known technique is Benson’s
“relaxation response”. Four factors are
critical:
1. A quiet environment.
2. A mental device (or focal point).
3. A passive attitude.
4. A comfortable position.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Application: Achieving Self-Control
•
Self-modification is a process (see Figure
4.15) designed to change behavior.
– It involves the following five steps:
1. Specifying your target behavior.
– Know what it is that you want to change.
2. Gathering baseline data.
–
Know where you are now so that you
can track progress.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Figure 4.15
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Application: Achieving Self-Control (cont.)
•
Step 2 (cont.)
– Observe your behavior for a period of time
and monitor three things:
• The initial response level of your
target behavior (e.g., how many calories
you consume).
• Monitor antecedents – “events that
precede the target response”.
• Monitor consequences of the target
behavior.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Application: Achieving Self-Control (cont.)
3. Designing your program.
– Your goal should be to either increase or
decrease a target response.
– To increase a target response:
•
•
Select a reinforcer.
Arrange the contingencies – describe
the exact behavior that must occur in
order to get the reinforcer.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Application: Achieving Self-Control (cont.)
•
Step 3 (cont.)
• Contingences could include the use of:
– Token economies – give yourself
symbolic reinforcers that are then
exchanged for real reinforcers (see
Figure 4.18).
– Shaping – reinforce “closer and
closer approximations of the desired
response”.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Figure 4.18
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Application: Achieving Self-Control (cont.)
– Decreasing response strength.
• Using reinforcement – reward yourself
for NOT emitting a behavior, or emitting
it less often (e.g., eating less).
• Controlling antecedents – avoid
exposure to events that trigger the
behavior.
• Punishment – if you choose this, don’t
use punishment alone (combine with
reinforcement) and use a mild
punishment.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Application: Achieving Self-Control (cont.)
4. Executing and evaluating your program.
– Implement your plan and make sure it is
working.
– You can avoid “cheating” by using a
behavioral contract – a “written
agreement outlining a promise to adhere
to the contingencies of a behavior
modification program”.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 4
Application: Achieving Self-Control (cont.)
5. Ending your Program.
– Make sure to spell out the conditions
under which you will end the program.
– It is also helpful to set terminal goals (e.g.,
reaching a certain weight).